Version of 2020-02-29

Wersja polska • Bilanguage version • Wersja dwujêzyczna

Grzegorz Jagodziñski

Irregular Word Changes

This article treats on the weakly described process which is irregular phonetic development of words. The scale of the process is unknown, however it seems that the more frequently is the using of a given word the more is its chance for irregular changing due to frequency. Besides, especially frequent irregularities can be observed among borrowings.

Some of the data below are thought to be certain, others are under discussion. In some instances crossing of originally different roots might have happened (see e.g. ³abêd¼). Hypothetic reconstructed forms are given. They should have existed in the proto-language if the word had developed regularly. It is known almost for sure that at most only one of such reconstructions can present a really existing form, however we rarely know which of them it is.

Slavic languages
bruzda
  • Pol. bruzda, old spelling brózda ‘furrow’, Russ. borozdá, Slvn. brázda < PS *borzda;
  • Ukr. borozná < PS *borzna.
chor±giew
  • Pol. chor±giew ‘banner, standard’ < PS *xorǫgy;
  • Slvn. karógva < PS *karǫgy,
  • S-Cr. kòrugva, Cz. korouhev < PS *korǫgy;
  • LSorb. chórgoj, USorb. chorhoj < PS. *xorъgy.
daleki
  • Pol. daleki ‘distant’, Cz. dále ‘further, forth’, dálka ‘distance’, daleký ‘distant’, Russ. dalëkij < PS *dalekъ jь or *daljekъ jь;
  • Slvk. ïáµa, diaµka, ïaleký < PS ?;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
d³uto
  • Pol. d³uto, old spelling d³óto ‘chisel’, Cz. dláto, Russ., Ukr. dolotó < PS *dolbto;
  • Bulg. dletó, S-Cr. dlijéto, dléto < PS *delbto (cf. OE delfan ‘to dig’).
gwó¼d¼
  • Pol. gwó¼d¼ ‘nail (metal fastener)’, Russ. gvozd′ ‘nail, tack, peg’, OCS gvozdь, S-Cr. gvozd ‘forest’ < PS *gvozdь;
  • Pol. go¼dzik ‘clove; carnation (Dianthus)’, Slvn. gȍzd, gọ̑zd ‘forest’, LSorb. gózd¼ ‘nail (metal fastener)’ < PS *gozdь, *gozdikъ.
jaskó³ka
  • Pol. jaskó³ka ‘swallow’ < PS *jastkol-;
  • OPol. jastku³ka < PS *jastkul-;
  • Cz. vla¹tovka < PS *vlastj-;
  • Slvk. lastovièka, USorb. ³astojèka, Russ. lastka, lastoèka < PS *last-;
  • Bulg. ljástovica < PS *lìst-;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
jaszczur
  • Pol. jaszczur ‘reptile, lizard, salamander’, jaszczurka ‘lizard’, Pruss. estureito < IE *āskeur-;
  • Russ. ja¹èer < IE *āsker-;
  • USorb. je¹æelca < IE *eskel-;
  • S-Cr. gȕ¹ter < IE *gousker-;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
jelito
  • Pol., S-Cr. jelito ‘intestine, gut’ < PS *elito;
  • Pol. dial. lelito < PS *lelito;
  • Ukr. jalytý ‘bowels, intestines’ < PS *ality.
kaprawy
  • Pol. kaprawy ‘lachrymatory, suppurating’, Ukr. kaprávyj, Slvk. kapravý < PS *kapravъ jь;
  • Ukr. dial. koprávyj < PS *kopravъ jь;
  • Slvk. karpavý < PS *karъpavъ jь.
miêdzy
  • Pol. miêdzy ‘between’ < PS *mêdji;
  • Russ. mé¾du, OCS me¾dǫ < PS *medjǫ (cf. Pol. miedza ‘balk, bounds’).
motyl
  • Pol. motyl ‘butterfly’ < PS *motyljь;
  • LSorb. mjetel < PS *metъljь;
  • Slvn. metúlj < PS *metuljь;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
olbrzym
  • Pol. olbrzym ‘giant’ < PS *olьbrimъ;
  • ORuth. obrinъ, pl. obre < PS *ob(ъ)rinъ;
  • OCz. ober < PS *obъrъ (< Avar-).
paj±k
  • Russ. paúk ‘spider’, S-Cr. pȁūk < PS *paǫkъ;
  • Cz. pavouk, Slvk. pavúk < PS *pavǫkъ;
  • Pol. paj±k, Bulg. pájak < PS *pajǫkъ;
  • USorb., LSorb. pawk < PS *paъkъ;
  • Slvn. pȃjək, gen. pȃjka < PS *paьkъ.
pokrzywa
  • Pol. pokrzywa ‘nettle’ < PS *pokriva;
  • Cz. kopøiva < PS *kopriva, cf. Pol. Koprzywnica (a name of a town);
  • Ukr. kropyva < PS *kropiva;
  • Russ. krapiva < PS *krapiva.
s³up
  • Pol. s³up ‘pole, column, pillar’, USorb. sto³p, Cz. sloup, Slvk. ståp, Ukr. stovp, S-Cr. stȗp < PS *stъlpъ;
  • Russ. stolb ‘post, pole, column, pillar’, S-Cr. stȗb, bu³g. stъlb < PS *stъlbъ.
Romance languages
alauda
  • Celt. alauda ‘lark’ (→ Lat.) < IE *alaud-;
  • Span. alondra < Lat. *alaundra;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
hirundo
  • Lat. hirundō ‘swallow’;
  • Port. andorinha, Galic. andoriña < Lat. *handurinia (influenced by Basque ander ‘woman’?);
  • Span. golondrina < Lat. *gulundrina;
  • Catalan oreneta < Lat. *hurineta;
  • Catalan dial. oronella < Lat. *hurinella;
  • Occit. randoleta < Lat. *randuleta;
  • OFr. aronde < Lat. *harundō (Fr. hirondelle ← Lat.);
  • It. rondine < Lat. *rundinem;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
lacerta
  • Lat. lacerta ‘lizard’;
  • Span. Port. lagarta < Lat. *lacarta;
  • It. lucertola < Lat. *locertula;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
locusta
  • Lat. locusta ‘locust’;
  • OFrench languste, French langouste, Span. langosta < Lat. *langusta;
  • cf. borrowed OE loppestre, Eng. lobster (influenced by OE loppe ‘flea’?);
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
luscinia
  • Lat. luscinia ‘nighingale’;
  • It. usignolo < Lat. *usiniolum;
  • It. rusignolo < Lat. *rusiniolum;
  • Fr. rossignol, Occit. rossinhol, Catalan rossinyol < Lat. *rusciniolem;
  • Span. ruiseñor < Lat. *rusciniorem;
  • Rom. privighetoare has a completely different origin;
  • cf. irregularities in IE languages
Indo-European languages
baran
  • Pol. baran ‘ram’ < IE *bōrōn-;
  • Cz. beran ‘ram’, Alb. berr ‘sheep’, Ital. dial. bera, bar ‘ram’ < IE *ber-, bor-;
  • Gr. arneiós, arnēós, arneṓs (without w-) < IE *Harn-ēi- (*Harsn-ēi-, *Hr̥sn-ēi-);
  • Gr. ársēn, érsēn, gen. ársenos, érsenos ‘manly’ (without w-), OPer. ar¹an, Skr. r̥ṣa-bha- ‘bull’, Arm. aṙn ‘ram’ < IE *h1ers-, *h1r̥s-;
  • Skr. vr̥ṣṇi-, Av. var¹ni- ‘ram’ < IE *wr̥sn-i-;
  • Lat. verrēs ‘ram’, gen. verris, Skr. vr̥ṣan- ‘manly, powerful; stallion, bull’, vr̥ṣa-bha- ‘bull’, Lith. ver̃¹is ‘calf bull’, Toch. A kayurṣ, B kaurṣe ‘bull’, ON kursi ‘calf bull’ < IE *wers-, *wr̥s-, *gʷoh3u-wr̥s-;
  • Gr. arḗn ‘ram’, gen. arnós, dial. warḗn, Arm. gaṙn, -in ‘lamb’, Skr. úraṇa < IE *wr̥H-en-;
  • see also prosiê.
bia³y
  • Pol. bia³y ‘white’ < PS bìlъjь, Skr. bhālam ‘brightness, shine’ (maybe related to bhāti ‘to shine’), Lith. bolúoti ‘be white’, OIc. bál ‘fire’ < IE *bhēlHo-, *bhōlH-;
  • Lith. báltas ‘white’ (cf. Pol. b³oto ‘mud’), balà ‘bog, marsh’, Gr. phalós ‘white’ < IE *bhəlH-;
  • Hitt. alpa ‘cloud’, Gr. alphós ‘white mark’, Lat. albus ‘white’, Umbr. alfu ‘white (f)’, Eng. elf < PG *alb- < IE *əlbho-;
  • perhaps also Pol. lebioda and ³oboda ‘pigweed, Chenopodium album’ < PS *elbeda, *olboda, Gr. álphi, álphiton ‘barley, Hordeum sp.’, Alb. elp, elbi ‘t.s.’ < IE *əlbh-;
  • Lith. balánda ‘pigweed’ < IE *bholonH-;
  • see also ³abêd¼.
ch³op
  • Pol. ch³op ‘peasant, man’, Russ. xolóp ‘villein’, OCS xlapъ ‘slave, serf, servant’ < IE *kHolHp-;
  • Lith. ¹élpti, ¹elpiù ‘to help’, pa¹alpà ‘help’ < IE *ḱelHp-, *ḱolHp-;
  • Eng. help, Goth. hilpan < IE *kelb-.
ch³ód
  • Pol. ch³ód ‘coldness’, Russ. xólod, perhaps Dutch hal ‘frozen ground’ < IE *kHoldh-;
  • Lith. ¹áldyti ‘refrigerate, freeze’ < IE *ḱolHdh-;
  • Pol. s³ota ‘bad (rainy) weather’, Lith. ¹áltas ‘cold’, ¹al̃tis ‘frost’, ¹álti, ¹±̃lа ‘get frozen’, Latv. sal̂ts ‘cold’, Av. sarəta-, ModPers. serd, Oss. sald ‘frost’ < IE *ḱolHt- (cf. OCS slana ‘ice’);
  • Eng. cold, Goth. kalds, Lat. gelidus < IE *gelHdh-;
  • Skr. hlādate ‘he refreshes himself’ < IE *ghelHd-;
  • Skr. jаḍаs ‘cold, stiffened’ < IE *geldo-.
czerw
  • Pol. czerw ‘worm, maggot’ < PS *èьrvь < IE *kʷr̥wi-;
  • Pol. czermieñ ‘calla, bog arum’, Slvn. èȓm ‘worm, maggot’, PS *èrmь, Lith. kirmìs ‘worm’, Alb. krimb, OIr. cruim, Welsh pryf, Skr. kr̥mi- < IE *kʷr̥mi-;
  • Lat. vermis, Eng. worm, OE wyrm, Swed. orm ‘serpent’, OCS vьrmьje ‘locust’, ORuth. vermije ‘t.s.’, Lith. var̃mas ‘midge’, Pruss. wormyan ‘red’, Alb. rrime ‘earthworm’, Gr. rhómos ‘woodworm’ < IE *Hwermi-, *Hwr̥mi-;
  • Gr. hélmīs, hélmīns ‘worm’, gen. hélminthos, hélmiggos < IE *Hwelmi-;
  • Gr.pl. líminthes < IE *limi-;
  • Mod.Gr. lebídes, lebítha (irreg.);
  • Norw.dial. alme ‘larva’ < IE *Halm- or *Halbh-n-;
  • Dutch elft ‘larva’, OHG alba < IE *Halbho-, *Halbhi-;
  • see also mrówka.
cz³owiek
  • Pol. cz³owiek ‘man, human being’ < PS *èьlo- < IE *kʷĕlo-;
  • Pol. czelad¼ ‘retinue, entourage’, OCS èelovìkъ ‘man, human’, Lith. kìltis, kiltìs, kelỹs ‘kin, generation’, Skr. kúlam ‘herd, multitude, kin’, Gr. télos ‘crowd’, Lat. colere ‘to dwell, inhabit’, Ir. cland, clan ‘clan, kin’ < IE *kʷel-, *kʷl̥-;
  • further connections to gard³o, g³owa, ko³o are possible.
cztery
  • Pol. cztery ‘four’ < PS *èьtyry < IE *kʷĕtūrūs;
  • Gr. téttares, OCS èetyre < PS *èetyre < IE *kʷetūres, *kʷetwəres < PIE *kʷetwHres;
  • Lith. keturì, Skr. catur < IE *kʷetur-;
  • Lat. quattuor < IE *kʷatwor;
  • Goth. fidwōr < IE *petwōr.
daleki
  • Pol. daleki ‘distant’, Cz. dále ‘further, forth’, dálka ‘distance’, daleký ‘distant’, Russ. dalëkij < IE *d(h)āli-;
  • Lith. tolì ‘far away’, tólimas ‘distant’, tõlis ‘distance’, Latv. tālu ‘far’, cf. also Hung. távol ‘far’ < IE *tāli-;
  • maybe Gr. tẽle, tēloũ ‘far away’ (commonly linked to télos, see ko³o) < IE *tēle;
  • cf. irregularities in Slavic
*dgʷel-
  • Gr. bdélla ‘leech’ < IE *dgʷel-;
  • Lat. hirūdo < IE *dgʷir-;
  • Germ. Egel, OE igel, Swed. igel < PG *egal- < IE *eghol-;
  • ModLG zullen ‘to suck a soother’, zulp ‘rag to suck’, tulken ‘to suck, to gulp’, Dutch tullen ‘to soak’ < IE *dul-;
  • Gr. neogillós ‘newly sucking’, Gíllos < IE *gil-;
  • Lith. ¾į̃sti (¾iñda, ¾iñdō) ‘to suck’ < IE *ǵeid- (two voiced stops!);
  • Av. x¹vīd- ‘milk’, Lith. svíestas ‘butter’ < IE *ksweid-;
  • Toch. tsuk- ‘to drink’, Skr. dogdhi ‘he milks’, dogha ‘milkman’ < IE *dheugh-;
  • Lith. dėlė ‘leech’ < *dhēl-;
  • perh. Pol. doiæ ‘to milk’, Skr. dhayati ‘he sucks’, Lat. fēlāre ‘suck’ < IE *dhēi-;
  • Goth. daddjan ‘suck’ < IE *dhodhi-.
dr±g
  • Pol. dr±g ‘pole, rod’, OIc. drang ‘stone protruding from the ground’, Norw. dreng ‘column, thick stick’ < IE *dhrengh-, dhrongh-;
  • Lith. dránga ‘thick branch’ < IE *dhong- (acute!),
  • Pol. drêczyæ ‘torment’, Russ. druk ‘pole, rod’ < IE *dhronk-;
  • Lat. truncus ‘trunk, torso’, Welsh trŵch ‘injured’, Lith. trenkiù, treñkti ‘strike with noise’ < IE *trenk-, *tronk-.
drozd
  • Gr. *drouthos ‘sparrow’ (deduced from proper names), Arm. tordik ‘thrush’, Pol. drozd < IE *drozdh-;
  • OIr. truit, truid ‘starling’ (here?), Lat. turdus ‘thrush’, Gr. *trouthos ‘sparrow’ (deduced from proper names), Pruss. tresde ‘thrush’ < IE *trozdh-, *tr̥zdh-;
  • OIc. þrǫstr ‘thrush’ < *þrastu- < IE *trozd-;
  • MBret. dret ‘starling’ < *druti- < IE *druzdi-;
  • OIr. truit, truid ‘starling’ (here?), MWelsh trydw, OCorn. troet, MBret. tret, Bret. tred < *truti- < IE *truzdi-;
  • OHG drosela ‘thrush’, MHG drostel, Germ. Drossel, OS throsla, OE þrostle < IE *truzdl- or *trusl-;
  • MHG trostel < *drustl- < IE *dhruzdl- or *dhrusl-;
  • Fr. drenne ‘thrush’, older draine, drine ← Gaul. *dresdinā < IE *drezd-;
  • Welsh tresglen, OBret. trascl, tracl ‘seagull’, Corn. traskel ‘thrush’ < IE *trez(d)ko-;
  • Bret. draskl, drask < IE *drez(d)ko-;
  • OE ðrysce, Eng. thrush < *þruskjō- < IE *trus(t)ki- or *truz(d)gi-;
  • Gr. strouthós, stroũthos ‘sparrow’, Lith. strãzdas ‘thrush’, Latv. strazds < IE *strozdh-;
  • Gr. ksouthós, ksoũthros ‘sparrow’ < IE *ksozdh-;
  • perhaps Gr. présbys ‘wren’ < IE *presgʷu-;
  • ON þerna ‘tern’, Dan. terne (→ Eng. tern) < IE *terno-;
  • OHG stara ‘starling’, Germ. Star, Du. sterre, OE stær, Eng. star-ling, OIc. stari < IE *stor-;
  • Lat. sturnus ‘starling’, ModLat. sterna ‘tern’, OE stearn, Du. stern, Pruss. starnite ‘seagull’ < IE *sterno-, *str̥no-;
  • Gr. astralós ‘starling’ < IE *H2str̥lo-.
dziewierz
  • Pol. dziewierz ‘husband’s brother’, Lith. dieverìs, Skr. devár-, Arm. taigr, Gr. dāḗr < IE *daiwer-, *dāiwer-;
  • OE tācor, OHG zeihhur < IE *daiger-;
  • Lat. lēvir < IE *lēwir- (*laiwir-?).
d¼wiêk
  • Pol. dzwon ‘bell’, d¼wiêk ‘sound’, Russ. zvuk ‘sound’, Alb. zëh ‘voice’, Arm. jain, Gr. phōnḗ, Toch. kaṃ ‘melody’ < IE *ǵhwon-, *ǵhwōn-, *ǵhwen-ko-, *ǵhwon-ko-;
  • Lat. sonus ‘sound’, Skr. svanás, OIr. senn- ‘play music’, OE swinsian ‘sing’, OHG, Eng. swan < IE *swono-.
gabaæ
  • Skr. gábhasti- ‘hand’, Lith. gãbana ‘armful’, gõbis ‘greed’, gebė́ti ‘be ready’, Lat. habēre ‘have’, Osk. haf- ‘t.s.’, OIr. gaibid ‘(s)he takes, seizes’, Goth. gabeigs ‘rich’, Eng. give < IE *ghebh-, *ghobh-, *ghōbh-;
  • OPol. gabaæ ‘to attack’, Pol. nagabywaæ ‘to molest, to solicit’, Lith. góbti ‘take possession of sth.’, Umbr. hab- ‘have’, Lat. habēre ‘have’, habilis ‘skilful’ < IE *ghəb-;
  • Osk. hip- ‘have’, Pol. gapiæ siê ‘stare’, Germ. gaffen ‘t.s.’ < IE *ghēp-, *ghop-, *ghōp-;
  • OE cefes ‘concubine’, Germ. Kebse ‘t.s.’, ON kefser ‘prisoner of war’ < IE *gəbh-;
  • Russ. zabota ‘care’, zabotit′sja ‘to care’, MLG kapēn ‘stare’, Eng. keep < PG *kōpj- ‘keep, observe, look after’ < IE *ǵāb-;
  • Bret. kavout ‘have’, Welsh caffael ‘attainment’ < IE *kəbh-;
  • Lat. capere ‘catch’, Gr. kṓpē ‘grasp’, Skr. kapaṭī ‘armfull’, Ir. cúan ‘haven’, Eng. haven, Alb. kam ‘I have’, OE hæft ‘prisoner of war’, Goth. hafjan ‘heave’, Eng. heave, have < PG *xabē- < IE *kap-, *kəp-;
  • Russ. xabit′ ‘seize’, ON haptr ‘prisoner of war’, Dutch happen ‘catch’, Germ. happig ‘greedy’, Eng. hap, happy, happen < IE *kHab-;
  • Pol. chapaæ ‘catch’, Russ. xopit′, OPol. chopiæ ‘catch, embrace’, Arm. xaphanem ‘I disturb’ < IE *kHapH-, *kHāpH-;
  • Lat. apīscī ‘attain’, Skr. āpnōti ‘he attains’, Hitt. appanzi ‘they take’ < IE *Hap-, *Həp-,
  • Gr. háptō ‘I bind, I fix’, háphē ‘touch’, Arm. aph ‘empty hand’ < IE *HəpH-.
gard³o
  • Pol. gard³o ‘throat’, gardziel ‘pharynx, throat’, Russ. ¾erló ‘hole, crater’ < IE *gʷr̥-dhlo-, *gʷr̥-dheli-;
  • Gr. bárathron ‘muzzle, mouth, hole’ < IE *gʷr̥-dhro-;
  • OPol. garciel ‘pharynx, throat’, Lith. gurklỹs, OLith. gurklė < IE *gʷr̥-tli-, *gʷr̥-teli-;
  • Russ. gortan′ ‘larynx’ < PS *gъrtanь < IE *gʷr̥-taH-;
  • Pol. grdyka ‘Adam’s apple’ < IE *gʷru-dhuH-;
  • Pol. krtañ ‘larynx’ < PS *grъtanь < IE *gʷru-taH-;
  • Eng. craw, Germ. Kragen ‘throat, collar’, OIr. brágae ‘t.s.’ < IE *gʷrogho-;
  • Gr. brógkhos ‘bronchus, throat’ < IE *gʷrongho-;
  • OPol. k³taæ ‘to swallow’, Russ. glotat′, S-Cr. gȗt ‘throat’, Lat. glūtīre ‘swallow’ < IE *glou-t-, *glu-t-;
  • Pol. kark ‘cervix’, Skr. kr̥kāta- ‘neck vertebra’, Gaul. cricon ‘throat’< IE *kr̥ko-;
  • Lat. cervīx, gen. cervīcis ‘cervix, neck’ < IE *kerwīk-;
  • possible further connections to cz³owiek, ko³o, kr±g.
gi±æ, kubek
  • Gr. hybóomai ‘become humpbacked’ < IE *Hub-;
  • Gr. hỹbos ‘hump of a camel’, hȳbós ‘humpbacked’, hȳbázō ‘stoop forward and vomit’ < IE *Hūb-;
  • Hitt. ḫupalla¹ ‘skull, scalp’ < IE *HubhH-l-;
  • Av. xumba ‘jug, crock; hollow’ < IE *kHumb(h)-;
  • Gr. Hes. kýpē ‘hole, pit’, Lat. cūpa ‘barrel, keg, vat; handle’ (→ OHG kuofa, Germ. Kufe ‘tub’), OE hyf ‘hive’, Eng. hive, Skr. kūpa- ‘hole, cave, well’, OSlav *kъpъ ‘vulva’, Pol. kiep ‘stupid man’, kiepski ‘bad, poor, lame’, kpiæ ‘mock, jest’ < IE *kup-, *kūp-;
  • Lat. cūpula ‘small barrel’ (→ OHG kubil, Germ. Kübel → OCS kъbъlъ, kubъlъ, OPol. gbe³ ‘bucket, kibble’, Pol. kube³ and the newer kibel ‘toilet’) < IE *kūp-el-;
  • Pol. k±paæ siê ‘to bathe’ < IE *kump- or *komp-;
  • Pol. k±piel ‘bath, bathing’, OCS kǫpìlь (< ‘tub’?) < IE *kump-ēl- lub *komp-ēl-;
  • Gr. kampḗ ‘curve, curvature, flexion, distortion’ (→ Lat.-Rom. camba, gamba ‘leg, foot’, Alb. këmbë), kámptō ‘bend, curve, turn’, kampýlos ‘curved, bent’, Lat. campus ‘field’, Goth. hamfs ‘mutilated, lame’, Lith. kãmpas ‘corner, side, hidden place, angle, bail above the horse collar’, kùmpa ‘swelling, tumor, hump’, kum̃pas ‘curved, bent’, OPol. czêpieæ ‘squat, sit in squatting’, Pol. kêpa ‘holm, hillock, ait, hurst, cluster’, k±t ‘angle, corner, niche’ (< *kamp-to-) < IE *kamp-, *kmp-;
  • Lat. *cuppum ‘skull’, cuppa ‘bowl’ → Eng. cup, Germ. Kopf ‘head’, Skr. ¶ópha- ‘swelling’ < IE *ḱoupH-, *ḱupH-;
  • Lat. caput ‘head’, ON hǫfuð, OE hæfud, hafud, Skr. kapucchala- < *kaput-¶ala- ‘a bundle of hair on the back of the head’ < IE *kapu-t-;
  • stir. cúach, wal. cawg ‘cup’ < IE *kapu-k-;
  • OE hafola, hafela ‘head’, Skr. kapāla- ‘vessel, cup, skull’ < IE *kapu-l-, *kape-l-, *kapo-l-;
  • OS haban ‘vessel, pot’, OHG havan, MHG haven < IE *kap-no-;
  • OE hēafod ‘head’, Eng. head, ON haufuð < IE *koupu-t-;
  • Goth. haubiþ ‘head’, OHG houbit, Germ. Haupt < IE *koupe-t-;
  • Gr. kýbda ‘with the head forwards’, kýbēbos ‘stooping with the head’, kybistáō ‘tumble head foremost’, kýbos ‘large clay vase; die (dice); vertebra; hollow above the hips on cattle’, kýbiton ‘elbow’, Lat. cubitum ‘elbow’, cubāre ‘bend, lie’, Welsh gogof ‘hollow, den’ (< *upo-kubā), Goth. hups ‘hip’, OE hype, Eng. hip, OE hoppian ‘to hop’ (< *xuppōjan-), Eng. hop, ON hoppa, MHG hupfen, hopfen, Germ. hüpfen < IE *kub-;
  • Skr. kumba- ‘thick end of a bone’, Gr. kýmbē ‘bowl, cup, gouged boat’, Lat. cumba ‘boat’, Eng. hump < IE *kumb-;
  • Gr. kýptō, perf. kékypha ‘bend, lean’, ON húfa ‘cap, hood’, OE hūfe, OHG hūba (< *xūbōn-), Ved. kubhrá- ‘humpbacked cattle’, Pol. kub, kubek ‘mug, tumbler’ < IE *kubh-, *koubh-;
  • Gr. kȳphós ‘hunchbacked’, kỹphos, kȳ́phōsis ‘hump, hunch’ < IE *kūbh-;
  • Lat. acūmen ‘blade, top’ < IE *H2akūbh-;
  • Lat. cacūmen ‘top, summit’, Skr. kakúbh- ‘top of the mountain’ < IE *kakubh-, *kakūbh-;
  • Skr. kumbhá- ‘jug’ < IE *kumbh-;
  • Gr. gampsós ‘curved, crooked’, gampsēlaí ‘jaws of animals’ < IE *gamp-;
  • Gr. gnaptós ‘bent’ < IE *gnap-;
  • Gr. gnámptō ‘bend’, gnamptós ‘bent’, gnamptḗr ‘jaw’ < IE *gnamp-;
  • ON gaupn ‘both hands held together’, OHG gaufana ‘hollow of the hand’, OE geap ‘crooked’ < IE *ghub- (*ghubh-n-);
  • Lith. ¾iupsnìs ‘hollow of the hand’ < IE *ǵhĕubh-sn-;
  • Norw. guve ‘cower’, Lith. gùbti, gumbù ‘bend, curve’, Latv. gubt ‘bend, become bent’, OCS po-gubiti ‘destroy’, ORuth. gъbnuti ‘bend’, Pol. gi±æ ‘t.s.’ (instead of gn±æ < *gъnǫti < *gъbnǫti) < IE *ghoubh-, *ghubh-;
  • OPol. gibaæ ‘bend; swing, rock’, Pol. gin±æ (*gybnǫti) ‘perish, fall, vanish, disappear’ < IE *ghūbh-;
  • Skr. kṣúbhayati, kṣóbhate ‘shake, rock’ < IE *kseubh-, *ksubh-;
  • Pol. chybotaæ, OPol. chybaæ ‘shake, rock, wobble, move’, Pol. chybiæ ‘miss the aim’, chyba ‘perhaps’ < IE *ksūbh- (or *khūbh-);
  • Goth. biugan ‘bow, bend’, ON bjúga, OHG biogan, Germ. biegen, Lith. baũgurs ‘hill’, Russ. bugór ‘hillock’, bgat′ ‘bend’ < IE *bheugh-, *bhough-, *bhugh-;
  • OE būgan ‘bow, bend’, Eng. bow < IE *bhūgh-;
  • Skr. bhujáti ‘he bends, he shoves’ < IE *bhug-.
g³êboki
  • Gr. glyphō ‘carve, bore, channel’, Lat. glūbō ‘peel’, Eng. cleave, OHG klioban, klūbōn, OCz. hlboký ‘deep’ < IE *gleubh-, *gloubh-, *glubh-;
  • Ukr. hlybókyj ‘deep’, Russ. glýboko ‘deeply’ < IE *glūbh- (*glumbh-);
  • OCS glǫbokъ ‘deep’, Russ. glubókij, Pol. g³êboki, Skr. jr̥mbhate ‘gape emptily’ < IE *glombh-, *gl̥mbh-;
  • LSorb. g³umoki ‘deep’ < IE *gloum-;
  • Skr. gambhirá- ‘deep’ < IE *gombh-;
  • Lith. gilùs ‘deep’ < IE *gĕlu-;
  • Lith. gelmė̃ ‘a deep’ < IE *gelm-;
  • Pol. ¿³ób ‘gully; crib, manger’, Russ. ¾ólob < IE *gelbh-;
  • further connections possible, see gʷelbh-, ¿o³±dek.
g³os
  • Hitt. kalle¹ta ‘he shouted’, Lat. calāre ‘to summon, announce’, celeber ‘frequented, loud, clear’, Gr. kaléō ‘I call’, kalḗtōr ‘herald’, OHG hellan ‘to resound’, hlamōn ‘to shout’, Germ. Hall ‘sound’, Skr. kala- ‘silently voiced’, uṣā-kala-, kalādhika-, kalāvika- ‘cock’, kala-víŋka- ‘sparrow’, Lith. kalbà ‘language, speech’ < IE *kelH-, *kĕlH-, *kolH-, *kl̥H-;
  • OIc. skjalla ‘to shout’, skǫll ‘scoff, noise’, skellr ‘sound, rumble’, skal ‘alert’, skjal ‘talk’, OE sciellan ‘to shout’, OHG scellan, Germ. Schall ‘sound’, OFris. skelda ‘to scold’, Eng. scold, Germ. schelten, Lith. skélbti, skélbiu ‘to gossip’ < IE *skelH-, *skolH-;
  • OIc. hvellr ‘clearly sounded’, Gr. kýlla ‘pup’, Lith. kãlė, kalė̃ ‘chicken’, Alb. këlüsh ‘young animal, esp. dog’, MIr. cuilén (< *koli-gno-), Wel. colwyn, OCorn. coloin, Bret. kolen ‘pup’ < IE *kʷelH-, *kʷolH-;
  • OIc. skval ‘chatter, wordstream’, skvala ‘to speak loudly, to call’, skvaldr ‘loud talking’, Gr. skýlaks ‘pup, young animal’, Lith. skalìkas ‘hunter dog used for battue’, skãlyti ‘to bark’, Pol. dial. skoliæ, skuliæ ‘to whimper’ < IE *skʷelH-, *skʷolH-;
  • Gr. kalláion ‘cock’s comb’, OIr. cailech ‘cock’ (< *kaljākos), Ogham gen. caliācī, Wel. ceiliog, Latv. kaļôt ‘to summon’ < IE *kolj-;
  • OCS klakolъ, Russ. kólokol ‘bell’ < IE *kolkol-;
  • Lith. kañkalas ‘bell-flower’, Pol. k±kol ‘corn cockle’ < IE *konkol-;
  • Lat. clārus ‘loud, clear’, OE hlōwan ‘to low, to roar’, hlētan ‘to hem’ < IE *kleH-;
  • Lat. clāmāre ‘to shout’, Pol. klaskaæ ‘to clap’ (< *klìskati) < IE *kleH-;
  • OE hlimman ‘to sound, to resound’, hlimme ‘fast current’, hlemm ‘shout’, OHG hlamōn ‘to sough’ < IE *klem-, *klom-;
  • Gr. klónos ‘battle turmoil’, OE hlynn ‘shout; fast current’, hlynnan, hlynian, hlynsian ‘to shout’, hlynrian ‘to thunder’, gehlyn ‘scream’, Skr. krándati ‘he shouts’, Latv. klentēt ‘to curse’, OCS klêti, klьnǫ ‘to curse, to swear’, Pol. kl±æ, klnie < IE *klen-, *klĕn-, *klon- (mixed with *klin- ‘to bend, to bow, to stoop’);
  • Lat. clangor ‘sound, rattle’, Gr. klaggḗ < IE *klang-;
  • Pol. che³piæ siê ‘to boast’ (< *xъlpiti sê) < IE *kHel-p-;
  • Pol. che³biæ siê ‘to boast’, chluba ‘pride, credit’ < IE *kHel-bh-;
  • Pol. chrobry ‘courageous, gallant’ (< *xorbrъ) < IE *kHor-bh-;
  • Wel. galw ‘to shout, to summon’, MBret. galu ‘call, appeal’ (< *gol-w-); MIr. gall ‘fame, glory’ (< *gol-n-); Skr. gargara- ‘a certain musical instrument’, OCS glagolъ ‘word’, glagolati ‘speak’, Russ. gologólit ‘to chatter’ (<*gol-gol-); MHG kalzen, kelzen ‘to gossip, to chatter’; OFris. kaltia ‘speak’ (< *gol-d-); Lat. gallus ‘cock’, ON kall ‘calling’, kalls ‘stirring, instigating’, OE callian ‘call’, Eng. call, OHG kallōn ‘to gossip’, Osset. ɣalas ‘voice’, Lith. gal̃sas ‘sound, echo’, Pol. g³os ‘voice’ (< *gol-dh-s-) < IE *gol-;
  • ON klapp ‘crash’, OHG klapf ‘rumour, rumble, hit, shock’ < IE *gla-b-;
  • OE clatrian ‘to clatter’, Germ. Klatz ‘blot’ < IE *gla-d-;
  • Gr. glázō ‘I let the song sound’, ON klaka ‘to twitter’, klakkr ‘ink-stain, clod, cloud’, OE clacu ‘insult’, Eng. clack, Germ. Klecks ‘ink-stain’ < IE *gla-g-;
  • OHG klinkan ‘to sound’, Eng. clink, Swed. klinka ‘to bell, to clank’ < IE *gleng-;
  • Skr. garhati ‘he complains, he condemns’, garhā ‘reprimand’, gr̥hú- ‘beggar’, Av. gərəzaiti ‘he complains’, Osset. ɣärzun ‘to groan’; OHG klaga ‘complaint’, klagōn ‘to complain’, Germ. Klage, klagen, MIr. glām ‘shout, curse’ (< *glagh-smā) < IE *galgh-, *gl̥gh-, *glagh-;
  • OHG klingan ‘to sound’, Germ. klingen < IE *glengh-;
  • Lith. girdė́ti ‘hear’, gar̃sas ‘sound; glory, fame’ < IE *ger-dh-, *gor-dh-;
  • OIc. gjalla ‘to resound’, galdr ‘singing, incantation’, Eng. yell, Germ. gellen ‘to resound’, OE galan ‘to sing, to yell’, Got. gōljan ‘to say hello’, Russ. galit′sja ‘to mock’, dial. galúcha, gal′ ‘laughter’ (< *ghōl-), Skr. gharghara- ‘strumming; alert’ (< *ghol-ghol-), OE gielpan ‘to boast’, MHG gelpfen, gelfen (< *ghel-b-), OHG gelbōn ‘to deceive’, Skr. pragalbha- ‘firm, resolute, brave’, Lith. gul̃binti ‘to praise’ (< *ghel-bh-), OHG galm ‘alert’ (< *ghol-m-), Ic. gelta ‘to bark’, OHG gelzōn ‘to shout’ (< *ghel-d-) < IE *ghel-, *ghol-, *ghōl-;
  • MHG glīen ‘to shout’ < IE *ghleH-;
  • Latv. valoda ‘speech, language’, OCS volati ‘to call’, Pol. wo³aæ < IE *wol-.
g³owa
  • Pol. g³owa ‘head’, Lith. galvà, ON kollr ‘skull, head, round mountain top’ < IE *golw-;
  • Pol. go³y ‘naked’, ga³±¼ ‘branch’, Latv. gāla ‘glazed frost’, Arm. ko³r ‘branch’, Germ. kahl ‘bald–headed’, OE calu, Eng. callow < IE *golo-;
  • Pol. dial. ¿ó³w ‘swell, tumour’, Russ. ¾elvák, Skr. gúlma- ‘bud, tumour’ < *¾ьly, *¾ьlve < IE *gl̥w-;
  • Arm. glux ‘head’ < IE *ghōlū-ko-;
  • Gr. khélȳs, khelōnē ‘tortoise’, Eol. khelýnā < IE *gheloHu-, *ghelHu-;
  • Pol. ¿ó³w ‘tortoise’, PS *¾ьly, *¾ьlve (cf. Lat. testa ‘head’ : testūdō ‘tortoise’), Lat. fulvus, flāvus ‘yellow’ < IE *ghl̥HuH-;
  • Lat. calva ‘bald head, skull’, Skr. ati-kulva- ‘with extremely thin hair’, kulva- ‘bald–headed’, Av. kauruua- ‘thin-haired’ < IE *kl̥H-wo-);
  • Pol. czo³o ‘forehead’, Lith. kélti ‘raise’, Lat. ex-cellere ‘be taller, protrude, excell’, celsus ‘tall, haughty’ < IE *kelH-;
  • MIr. coll ‘head, chief’ < IE *kolH-n-;
  • possible further connections to cz³owiek, ko³o, kr±g.
*ǵneib-
  • Lith. gnī́bti ‘pinch’, gnaĩbis ‘a pinch’ < IE *gneib-;
  • Eng. knife, Germ. kneifen ‘pinch’ < IE *gneibh-,
  • Lith. ¾nī́bti ‘peck, pinch’, Latv. zniêbt ‘press hard, throttle’, ¾ņaîbît ‘press, pinch’ < IE *ǵneib-;
  • Lith. kneĩbti ‘collect, rake up, tinker, stick’ < IE *kneibh-;
  • ON hnīpa ‘hang down one’s head, be sad’, OE hnipian ‘let one’s head hang down, bend, be sad, be sleepy’, Lith. knìbti ‘sink’, Latv. kniêbt ‘pinch’ < IE *kneib-;
  • Latv. knĩpêt ‘pinch’ < IE *kneip-;
  • Lith. ¹nĩpti ‘pinch’, Latv. ¹ņiêpt ‘pinch’ < IE *ḱneip-;
  • Latv. ¹ņaîbît, ¹ņiêbt ‘pull a wry face’ < IE *ḱneib-.
gniazdo
  • Pol. gniazdo ‘nest’, OCS gnìzdo < IE *g(h)noizdo-;
  • Lith. lìzdas < IE *lizdo-;
  • Eng. nest, Lat. nīdus, Skr. nīḍa- < IE *nizdo-.
gnida
  • Pol. gnida ‘nit’, Latv. gnĩda, gņĩda, Ic., ON gnit, OSwed. gnether, Swed. gnet, Dan. gnid < IE *ghnid-;
  • Lith. glìnda < IE *ghlindā;
  • Lat. lēns, gen. lendis < IE *ghlend-;
  • Eng. nit, OE hnitu, OHG niz, Germ. Niss, Nisse, Gr. konís, Alb. thëri, thëni < IE *ḱHʷnid-;
  • OIr. sned, Welsh nedd, nedden < IE *snid-;
  • Ic. nit, Arm. anic < IE *Hʷnid-;
  • Skr. likṣā < *Hʷlidḱā.
gród
  • Pol. gród ‘fenced city’, Russ. górod ‘town’, Ukr. hórod, Lith. gar̃das ‘fence, pen, enclosure, bed, hurdle’, gardinỹs ‘fence’, gardìs ‘rack of a cart’, Alb. gardh ‘fence’, Skr. gr̥hás ‘house, habitation, home’, Av. gərəða- ‘den dwelled by daevas, homestead’, Toch. B kercci, kerciye ‘palace’, Phryg. Manegordum ‘Manes’s town’, Goth. gards ‘house’, ‘yard’, aurtigards ‘garden’, weinagards ‘vineyard’, garda ‘cattle-yard’, OIc. garðr ‘hedge’, ‘yard’, ‘garden’, gerði ‘fenced plot of ground’, Eng. yard, Germ. Garten ‘garden’, Rossgarten ‘pasture’ (for horses), Gürtel ‘belt’, Gr. korthílai ‘threads, conglomerations, mounds’, kórthys ‘heap’ < IE *ghordh-, *gherdh-;
  • Pol. ogród ‘garden’, ogrodzenie ‘fence, enclosure’, przegroda ‘barrier, compartment’, zagroda ‘farm, enclosure’, nagroda ‘prize, award’, bez ogródek ‘bluntly, baldly’, ¿erd¼ ‘pole’, Cz. hráze ‘wall of clay’, ‘fence of a garden’, ‘dam’, Russ. vinográd ‘vineyard’, ‘grapevine’, goró¾a ‘fence’, ogoród ‘garden’, Ukr. horód, Latv. gar̃ds ‘enclosure for pigs’ < IE *ghord-, *gherd-;
  • Lith. ¾ar̃dis ‘field-patch’ < IE *ǵhordh-;
  • Russ. zoród ‘heap, hayrick, fenced place for a hayrick’, Lith. ¾árdas ‘scaffold, fenced place for drying flax or peas’, Pruss. sardis ‘fence’, Phryg. Manezordum ‘Manes’s town’ < IE *ǵhord-;
  • OPol. ogartaæ ‘get dressed’, wygartaæ ‘dig the ashes from the oven’, Pol. gar¶æ ‘handful’, ogarniaæ ‘embrace’, ‘comprehend’, zagarniaæ ‘grab, scoop’, Cz. hrnout ‘gather, collect, rake’, Russ. gornút′ ‘rake hay’, OIr. gort ‘sown field’, Welsh garth ‘hurdle, field’, Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis ‘enclosure’, ‘guard’, hortus ‘garden’, OLat. ‘estate, villa’, Gr. khórtos ‘fenced place’, ‘hay, fodder’, Hitt. gurta ‘citadel, acropolis’ < IE *ghort-, *ghort-n-, *ghort-ti-;
  • perhaps also OE targe, OHG zarga ‘fence, enclosure’, Germ. Zarge ‘door-frame’, Eng. target, PG *targō-, *targōn- ‘binding, enclosure, shield’, Lith. dar̃¾as ‘garden’ < IE *dorǵh-;
  • see also kr±g, targ.
g¿eg¿ó³ka
  • Pol. dial. g¿eg¿ó³ka ‘cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)’ < IE *ghugheghughe-lu-;
  • Pol. dial. zazula < IE *ǵhōǵhou-li-;
  • ORuth. zegzica < IE *ǵheghuǵhī-;
  • ORuth. ¾еgъzulja < IE *gheghuǵhou-li-;
  • Lith. gegu¾ė̃ < IE *gheghuǵh-i-.
*gʷelbh-
  • Gr. délear ‘bait’ < IE *gʷelew-;
  • Skr. gárbha- ‘uterus, womb’, Av. garəwa-, Gr. delphýs < IE *gʷelbh-;
  • Lat. vulva, volva ‘womb’ < IE *gʷolw-;
  • Lat. volba ‘womb’ < IE *gʷolbh-;
  • Lat. bulba ‘womb’ < IE *bolbh-;
  • Eng. womb, Germ. Wamme < IE *wombh-;
  • OHG kilbur ‘female lamb’, OE cilforlamb, Eng. calf, Germ. Kalb < IE *gelbh-,*golbh-;
  • further connections possible, see g³êboki, ¿o³±dek.
imiê
  • Pol. imiê ‘name’, OCS imê, Pruss. emmens, Alb. emër, Gr. Laconian ényma < IE *H1ìnH3mn̥-;
  • Lat. nōmen , Skr. nā́man- < IE *(H3)noH3mn̥-;
  • Gr. ónoma, Phryg. onoman, Arm. anun, Toch. A ñom, Goth. namo, Eng. name, Germ. Name < IE *H3nH3mn̥-;
  • Hitt. lāman- < IE *(H3)loH3mn̥-;
  • Luv. álaman-, Lyc. alãman- < IE *H3lH3mn̥-.
jaskó³ka
  • Pol. jaskó³ka ‘swallow’, Russ. lastoèka, cf. above, perh. IE *lāst-;
  • Lith. lak¹tingala ‘nightingale’ (after lakstaũ, lakstýti ‘fly’?);
  • Lat. luscinia ‘nightingale’ < IE *luskaniā, perh. instead of *nokt-kaniā, cf. above
  • Eng. nightingale ‘nightingale’ (after OE galan ‘to sing, to yell’) < IE *nokt-kalia;
  • Gr. khelīdṓn, khelidwṓn ‘swallow’ < IE *ǵhelidw-;
  • Gr. kíkhlē ‘thrush’ < IE *ǵhi-ǵhel-;
  • Lat. hirundo ‘swallow’ < IE *ǵhirund-, cf. above
  • Alb. dallëndyshe < IE *ǵhol-ont-;
  • perh. Lith. kreg¾dė̃, krẽg¾dė < IE *kredǵh-;
  • Eng. -gale in nightingale, Germ. Nachtigall, Mid.Ir. gelbund ‘sparrow’, Lith. lak¹tingala ‘nightingale’ < IE *ǵhol-, *ǵhel-;
  • indirect connection to Eng. swallow, Dutch zwaluw, OHG swalawa, Germ. Schwalbe, ON svala ‘swallow’ < IE *swolu- ‘yellow-grey’ (with *ǵhelu- ‘yellow’ changed);
  • Slavic *solvьjь ‘nightingale’, Pol. s³owik, Pruss. salowis, cf. OHG salo, salawēr ‘dark, muddy’, Eng. sallow < IE *solu-, *solōu-;
  • Gr. koloiós ‘jackdaw’ < IE *ḱol-;
  • Celt. alauda ‘lark’ (→ Lat.) < IE *alaud-, cf. above
  • Vulg. Lat. *vannellum ‘lapwing’ (→ Fr. vanneau), connected to Ir. fáinle, fáinleog ‘swallow; swift’, OIr. fannall, Scott. fainleag, Welsh gwennol, Bret. gwennili < IE *Hwet- ? — cf. Gr. aetma ‘flame’ (?), áēma ‘blowing’, Lat. vannus ‘fan’;
  • Ir. áinle, áinleog with irregular loss of f-.
jaszczur
  • Pol. jaszczur ‘reptile, lizard, salamander’, jaszczurka ‘lizard’ < IE *āskeur-;
  • Russ. ja¹èer < IE *āsker-;
  • Pruss. estureito < IE *ēskur-;
  • Latv. ¹ķir̃gata, ¹ķìrgaîlis, Alb. hardhëlë, hárdhje < IE *skr̥g-, *skerǵ-;
  • Gr. askarís ‘worm, larva’ < IE *askarid-;
  • Gr. Hes. skarís ‘worm’ < IE *skarid-;
  • Gr. akrís ‘locust, grasshopper’ < IE *akrid-;
  • Skr. ¶alabha- ‘locust’ < IE *ḱolobh-;
  • Lith. skėrỹs ‘locust’ < IE *skēri-;
  • Lat. lacerta ‘lizard; mackerel’ < IE *dlaker-, cf. above and OFrench. maquerel ‘mackerel’;
  • Gr. drákōn ‘dragon, snake’ < IE *drakon-;
  • Lat. locusta ‘locust’ and ‘lobster’ < IE *dlokust-;
  • cf. irregularities in Slavic and Romance
*jem-
  • Latv. jumis, juma, jume ‘two joint things’ < IE *jumi-, *jumā-;
  • Skr. yamá- ‘twin’, Av. yə̄ma-, OIr. emuin ‘twins’, emnatar ‘they double’ < IE *jemo-;
  • Lat. geminus, -a, -um ‘twin, double’ < IE *gem-;
  • Lith. kemerĩs ‘fruit or nut accreted of two’ < IE *kem-.
jêzyk
  • Pol. jêzyk ‘tongue’, PS *êzy, Pruss. insuwis < IE *n̥ǵhuH-;
  • Pol. jêzor < IE *n̥ǵhor-;
  • Pol. ozór < IE *aǵhor-;
  • Lith. lie¾ùvis, Arm. lezu < IE *leiǵhuH-;
  • Ir. ligur < IE *liǵhuH-;
  • Lat. lingua < IE *ln̥ǵhuH-;
  • Skr. jihvā́ < IE *ǵiǵhuH-;
  • Lat. gingīva ‘gum’ < IE *ǵn̥ǵhiHw-;
  • Gr. glōkhís, gen. glōkhĩnos ‘tip, tonguelet’, glõtta, glõssa ‘tongue’ < IE *gloHǵhi-;
  • Av. hizvā- (f), hizū- (m), Alb. gjúhë < IE *siǵhuH-;
  • OLat. dingua, Goth. tuggo, OHG zunga, Germ. Zunge, Eng. tongue < IE *dn̥ǵhuH-;
  • OIr. tengae, MWel. tafawt, tauawt < IE *tn̥ǵhwāt-;
  • toch. A käntu < IE *ǵn̥dhuH-.
kamieñ
  • Pol. kamieñ, kamy-k ‘stone’ < IE *kām-;
  • OIc. hamarr ‘rock’, Eng. hammer < IE *kam- (*kəm-);
  • Lith. akmuõ ‘stone’, Skr. a¶man- ‘stone’, Gr. ákmōn ‘anvil’ < IE *akm-, *aḱm-.
*kend-
  • Hitt. ḫandai¹, ḫanda¹ ‘heat’, OIr. and- ‘kindle’, Gr. ánthraks ‘coal’ < IE *Handh-;
  • Arm. antʰel ‘charcoal’ < IE *Hant-;
  • Lat. candeō ‘shine’, candor ‘bright light’, candidus ‘bright’, candidātus ‘dressed in white’, candēla ‘candle’, incendō ‘set on fire’, Wel. cann ‘brilliant’, MBret. cann ‘full moon’, Gr. kándaros ‘coal’ < IE *kand-;
  • Skr. candrá- ‘brilliant’ < IE *kend-;
  • Skr. ¶ā¶ad- ‘excel’, Gr. Dor. kékadmai (Att. kékasmai, perf. of kaínymai) < IE *ḱe-ḱn̥d-;
  • Skr. chándas- ‘hymn of praise’, chadáyati ‘it appears’, Alb. hënë ‘moon’ < IE *sḱend-, *sḱond-, *sḱn̥d-;
  • Lat. carbō ‘charcoal’ < IE *kardh-;
  • Lat. cremō ‘I burn’ < IE *kredh-m-.
ko³o
  • Pol. ko³o ‘wheel’, Pruss. kelan, Latv. du-celes ‘dray’, Alb. sjell ‘turn, bring’, Skr. carati ‘it moves’, ON hvel ‘wheel’, Gr. pólos ‘axis, pivot’, pélomai ‘to move, to turn’, télos ‘goal’, Lat. colus ‘distaff’, Welsh pel ‘ball’ < IE *kʷelHo-, *kʷolHo-;
  • Lat. colubra ‘snake’ (similar to a distaff?) < IE *kʷelHo-sr-;
  • Gr. khélydros ‘water snake’ < IE *kHelu-;
  • Gr. kýklos ‘wheel’, Skr. cakra-, OE hwēol, hweowol, hweogol, Eng. wheel, Toch. A kukäl ‘wagon’, Lith. kãklas ‘neck’ < IE *kʷekʷlo-;
  • Lith. kálnas ‘mountain’, Lat. collum ‘hill’ < IE *kolH-;
  • OS holm ‘hill’, OE holm ‘island’, Lat. columen ‘hill’ < IE *kl̥H-m-;
  • Goth. OHG hals ‘neck’, Lat. collum ‘neck’ < IE *kolH-s-, *kolH-n-;
  • Pol. kolano ‘knee’, pokolenie ‘generation’ (cf. analog. Lat. genū ‘knee’ and genus ‘kin’), Lith. kelė́nas, kelỹs ‘knee’, Gr. kõlon ‘joint’ < IE *kelHo-, *kolHo-, *kōlHo-;
  • further connections to cz³owiek, gard³o, g³owa, kr±g are possible;
  • words of a similar form express the idea of the wheel or rolling in many languages in the word, and may be echoic, ex. Hebrew galgal גַּלְגַּל, gullā(h) גֻּלָּה, gālîl גָּליִל, all meaning, among others, ‘circle’.
koza
  • Pol. koza ‘goat’, kozio³ ‘he-goat’, ko¿uch ‘shipskin coat’, OCS kozьlъ ‘he-goat’, ko¾a ‘goat hide’, ko¾uxъ ‘shipskin coat’, Alb. keth, kedhi ‘kid’, Goth. hakuls ‘coat’, OIcel hǫkull, OE hækla ‘t.s.’ < IE *koǵ-, *koǵā (cf. Tatar käǯä ‘goat’, Bashk. käzä, Turkm. gäèi, Turk., Azer. keçi, Chagatay käègi, Chuv. kaèaga, Hung. kecske, perhaps also Turk. koç ‘ram’, Azer. qoç, Hung. kos);
  • OE hǣcen ‘kid’, MDutch hoekijn (< *hōkīna-) < IE *kōǵ-;
  • Pol. ja¼ ‘ide, orfe, the fish Leuciscus idus’, OCS azьno ‘goat hide’, ORuss. jazьno ‘t.s.’, Lith. o¾kà ‘goat’, o¾ỹs ‘he-goat’, Pruss. wosee (from Balt. → Finn. vuohi), Skr. ajás ‘he-goat’, ajā́ ‘goat’, MPers. azak, Pers. azg, OIr. ag ‘he-goat’ < IE *H2aǵ- (cf. Arab. ˁanzatun ‘goat’, Akk. enzu, ezzu, azzatu, ḫazzatu; Qazaq ä¹kĭ ‘goat’, Kyrg. e¹ki, ModUyghur dial. ö¹kä, Adyg. āèa ‘he-goat’, Dargwa ˁe¾a);
  • Gr. aĩks, gen. aigós ‘goat’, Thrac. aiz, Arm. ayc, Alb. edh ‘kid’, dhi (< *aiǵijā) ‘goat’, Skr. eḍa-, eḍaka- ‘a kind of sheep’ < IE *Haiǵ-, *Haiǵd-;
  • Av. izaēna-, īzaēna- ‘made of leather’ < IE *Hiǵ-,*Hīǵ-;
  • Skr. chaga-, chāga- ‘goat’ < IE *sḱegʷ-;
  • Eng. sheep, Germ. Schaf < PG *skǣpa- < IE *sḱeHb-;
  • Alb. cap, cjap, sqap ‘ram, he-goat’, Rom. þap, Pol. skop ‘castrated ram’ < IE *skep-, *skop-;
  • Eng. kid ← ON kið, OHG kizzi, Germ. Kitze < IE *gidhjo-;
  • Lat. haedus ‘kid’, Eng. goat, ON geit, Germ. Geiß, Goth. gaits < IE *ghaid- (cf. Akk. gadū ‘kid’, Arab. gadjun, Hbr. gəḏî, Berber aģãjd-);
  • Gr. Lakon. díza ‘goat’, Arm. tik ‘goatskin; animal skin’ < IE *dig-;
  • Germ. Ziege ‘goat’, OHG ziga < PG *tigō, OHG zickīn ‘little goat’, Germ. Zicke, OE ticcen ‘kid’ < PG *tikkīna- < *tignīna-, perhaps Pol. dziki ‘wild’, Lith. dỹkas < IE *dik-, *dīk- (cf. Georg. tʰxa ‘goat’, Kyrg. teke);
  • perhaps OPol. dziwy, dziwoki ‘wild’ < IE *dīw-;
  • all above mentioned names are probably borrowed;
  • cf. also wieprz.
kr±g
  • Pol. kr±g ‘circle’, krêg ‘vertebra’ (secondarily), OE hring ‘circle, ring’, Eng. ring, Umbr. krenkatrum, cringatro ‘sash, belt’ < IE *krengh-, *krongh-;
  • Lat. circus ‘wheel, circle’, Gr. Hell. kírkos < IE *kirko-;
  • Gr. kríkos ‘wheel’ < IE *kriko-;
  • Lat. carcer ‘gaol (circular enclosure)’ <IE *kr̥kro-;
  • Toch. A wärkänt, B yerkwanto ‘wheel’ < IE *wr̥g-;
  • Hitt. ḫurki ‘wheel’, Gr. érgō, eérgō, eírgō, heírgō ‘surround; exclude, chase away, deter’ < IE *Hʷerg-, *Hʷr̥g-;
  • Eng. quirk < IE *gʷerg-;
  • ON kringr ‘circle’, Lith. grễ¾ti, grê¾iù ‘to turn, to wring’ < IE *grenǵh- or *gʷrenǵh-;
  • possible further connections to gard³o, g³owa, gród, ko³o, krzywy, skrzyd³o;
  • an original semantic connection between wheel or ring and ringing is testified by Eng. ring < PG *xrengan- ‘to ring’ and ring ‘circular thing’, and by parallel Slavic *kolkolъ ‘bell’, perhaps connected to kolo ‘wheel’, see g³os.
krzywy
  • Lat. curvus ‘curved, bent’ < IE *kr̥wo-;
  • OIr. corr, MWel. cwrr ‘crooked’ < IE *kurso-;
  • Gr. kyrtós ‘curved, humpy’ < IE *kurto-;
  • Lat. crispus ‘curly (of hair)’, crīnis ‘hair of the head’, crista ‘crest, plume’, crīsāre ‘to move the haunches’, Wel. crych ‘curly (of hair)’, Goth. of-, us-hrisjan ‘to shake off, out’, OE, OS hrissan ‘to shake, shiver’, OIc. hris ‘shrubs’, OE hris ‘branch, brush’ < IE *kreis-, *kris-;
  • Gr. korōnís ‘curved line, ornament’, korōnós ‘curved’ < IE *koroHno-;
  • Pol. krêty ‘winding’, krêciæ ‘turn, twist’, krz±taæ siê ‘bustle’, Russ. krutój ‘steep’, Lith. krañtas ‘t.s.’, Skr. kr̥ṇati ‘is spinning, twisting thread’ < IE *krent-, *kront-, *kr̥n-;
  • Pruss. corto ‘fence’, Goth. haúrds ‘plaited gates’, Lat. crātēs ‘plait, fence, railing’ < IE *kr̥Ht-;
  • Pol. krzywy ‘crooked’, Lith. kreĩvas ‘curved’ < IE *kreiwo-;
  • possible further connections to kr±g, skrzyd³o.
lis / wilk
  • Gr. lýkos ‘wolf’ < IE *lukʷo-;
  • Luwian walwa, walwi ‘lion’, Toch.B walkwe ‘wolf’, OIr. olc ‘bad, evil’, ON ylgr ‘she-wolf’, Av. vəhrka ‘wolf’, Pers. gurg, Skr. vŕ̥ka, Alb. ujk, Lith. vil̃kas ‘wolf’, vìlkė ‘she-wolf’, Pol. wilk ‘wolf’, wilczyca ‘she-wolf’ < PS *vьlkъ, *vьlèi- < IE *wl̥kʷo-, *wl̥kʷiH-;
  • MWelsh llewyrn ‘foxes’, Welsh llywarn, Bret. louarn, lowern, Lith. lãpė, Pruss. lape < IE *lop-erno-, *lop-jā-;
  • Gr. alōpós ‘fox’ < IE *H2loH3po-;
  • Lat. vulpēs, volpēs ‘fox’, Hitt. ulipna-, ulippana- ‘wolf’, Eng. wolf, MHG wülpe, OHG wulpa, PG *wulfa- ‘wolf’, *wulbjō- ‘she-wolf’, Av. urupi- ‘marten, dog’ < IE *wl̥po-, *wl̥pi-, *wl̥pjaH-, *wl̥pei-;
  • Lat. lupus ‘wolf’ < IE *lupo-;
  • Av. raopi- ‘fox, jackal’ < IE *loupi-;
  • Skr. lopāka, lopā¶a ‘jackal’, MPer. rōpās ‘fox’ < IE *loupēko-, *loupēḱo-;
  • Pol. lis ‘fox’, Russ. lisa < IE *leipso- (*leipḱo-);
  • Latv. lapsa ‘fox’ < IE *lopsā- (*lopḱā-);
  • Gr. alṓpēks, gen. alṓpekos, Arm. a³uēs, gen. a³uesu < IE *H2loH3peḱ-;
  • irreg. Mod.Gr. alepoũ;
  • Lat. volpēx ‘fox’, Lith. vilpi¹ỹs ‘wild cat’, Middle Persian gurpak, Modern Persian gurba ‘house cat’ < IE *wl̥piḱ-, *wl̥pek-;
  • Goth. faúhō ‘fox’, ON fóa, fúa < IE *pukā-;
  • Dutch vos, Eng. faws < IE *pus-;
  • Eng. fox, vixen (irreg. v-), Germ. Fuchs < IE *puks-.
³abêd¼
  • Pol. ³abêd¼ ‘swan’ < PS *olbǫdь < IE *olHbhondh-;
  • OPol. also ³abêæ, Cz. labu» < PS *olbǫtь < IE *olHbhont-;
  • Russ. lébed′ < PS *elbedь, OE ielfetu, Eng. elk ‘swan, goose’ < IE *elHbhed-;
  • MHG albiz < PG *albet- < IE *olHbhed-;
  • OIc. ǫlptr < PG *albut- < IE *olHbhud-;
  • Lith. balañdis ‘pigeon’, Oset. bælond < IE *bolondh-;
  • Pol. go³±b ‘pigeon’, Russ. golubój ‘pale blue’, Pruss. golimban ‘blue’, Lith. gelumbė̃ ‘cloth’ < IE *golombh-;
  • Lat. columba ‘pigeon’, Arm. salamb ‘francolin’ < IE *ḱolombh-;
  • Gr. kólymbos ‘diving, grebe (Podiceps), diver (Colymbus)’, kolymbáō ‘I dive’, kolýmbaina ‘kind of crab’ < IE *ḱolumb-;
  • Gr. kolympháō ‘I dive’ < IE *ḱolumbh-;
  • Gr. kolýbdaina ‘kind of crab’ < IE *ḱolubj-;
  • Lat. palumbēs ‘wood pigeon’ < IE *polomb- (*pəlomb-);
  • Arm. a³awni ‘pigeon’ < IE *pl̥Hbh-ni- (*Hl̥Hbh-ni-);
  • Pers. kabūtar ‘pigeon’ (→ Pruss. keutaris) < IE *kobuH-;
  • Lith. gul̃bė, gulbė̃ ‘swan’, S-Cr. dial. gūb < IE *gl̥bh-;
  • Pol. dial. kie³p ‘swan’, S-Cr. kup, Russ. dial. kolp′ ‘spoonbill’ < PS *kъlpь < IE *kl̥p-;
  • see also bia³y.
³gaæ
  • Pol. ³gaæ ‘to lie, to tell lies’, Goth. liugan ‘to lie’, laugnjan ‘to deny’, OHG lugî ‘a lie’, OLith. luginaite ‘insidious, treacherous’, OIr. gen.sg. logaissi ‘of a liar’, follugaim ‘I hide’ < IE *leugh-;
  • OIc. lokka ‘to deceive’, Lith. lūgóti ‘to ask for’, Latv. lùgti < IE *lug-.
mnogi
  • Pol. mnogi ‘plural, numerous’, OCS mъnogъ < IE *munogh-;
  • Goth. manags < IE *monogh-;
  • Eng. many, OE maniġ ‘large, sufficient, many’< IE *monegh-;
  • OIr. meinicc ‘frequent, abundant’, MWelsh mynych < IE *meneghk-.
motyl
  • Goth. maþa ‘worm’, OE maþa, maða ‘grub, worm, maggot’, OS matho, Du. made ‘maggot’, OHG mado ‘maggot, worm’, Germ. Made ‘maggot’, Pol. motyl ‘butterfly’, Russ. motylëk ‘little butterfly’, motýl′ ‘maggot of a gnat’, cf. above < IE *móton-, *motuHli-;
  • cf. Arm. matʰil ‘louse’, Georg. matil ‘worm’;
  • MHG matte ‘moth’ < *madd- < IE *motnó-;
  • Norw. måre ‘woodworm’, mære ‘mite’ < *maþran-, *maþrjan- < *mótr-;
  • ON maðkr ‘maggot’, ME maðek, MLG maddike, meddeke < *maþníkan- < IE *motnég-;
  • Eng. maddock < IE *motnúg-;
  • Eng. maggot < IE *moknúd-;
  • ME mawke, Eng. mawkish < *magk- < IE *mokug-;
  • OE moþþe, moððe ‘moth’, Eng. moth < IE *mútn-;
  • ON motti ‘moth’, MDu. motte, Du. mot < *mutta- < IE *mutnó-;
  • MHG motte, mutte, Germ. Motte ‘moth’ < *mudda- < IE *mutnó-;
  • OE Northumbrian mohðe ‘moth’, Eng. Scot. mogthe < IE *múket-;
  • perhaps Skr. matkuna- ‘bug’ < IE *motkuno-;
  • perhaps Eng. bot ‘parasitical worm or maggot’, butter-fly < IE *bhutnó-.
mózg
  • Pol. mózg ‘brain’, arch. also ‘marrow’, CS mozgъ ‘marrow’, OPruss muzgeno, Skr. majján- ‘marrow, pith’, Av. mazga- ‘brain, marrow’, ON mergr ‘marrow’, OE mearh, Eng. marrow, OHG marag, marg, Germ. Mark ‘core, marrow, pulp’, MIr. medg ‘whey’, Welsh meidd, Fr. mègue (← Gal. *mesgā), Toch. m䶶unt ‘marrow’ < IE *mozgh-;
  • Pers. maγz ‘brain, fat, marrow, kernel’, Osset. mağz (irreg.);
  • Cz. mozek ‘brain’, S-Cr. mȍzak < irreg. or IE *moǵh-uk-;
  • Skr. smajján-, smajjā́ ‘marrow’ < IE *smozgh-;
  • Lith. smãgenys, smãgenės ‘brain, marrow’ < IE *smogh-;
  • Gr. smáō ‘I rub off, I wipe off’, smáomai ‘I rub myself with an ointment’, Lat. macula ‘stain, blot’ (*smə-tlā) < IE *smaH2-;
  • Lith. smársas ‘fat’, OIr. smiur ‘marrow’, Welsh mêr, OIc. smjǫr, smør ‘fat, butter’, OE smeoru ‘fat, grease, tallow’, Eng. smear, OHG smero ‘fat’, Germ. Schmer ‘kidney fat’, ON smyrsl ‘ointment’, OE smirels (<*smerwisla-), Gr. smýris ‘emery’, smýrnē ‘myrrh’, Toch. ṣmare ‘oil’ < IE *smer-, *smor-, *smorH-;
  • Bret. mel ‘marrow’ < IE *smel-;
  • Gr. mýron ‘salve, perfume’ < IE *mer-, *mor-;
  • Lat. medulla ‘marrow, pith, interior’ < IE *(s)medusl-;
  • Gr. bregmós, brégma ‘front part of the head’ < IE *mreg-;
  • Gr. brekhmós, brékhma ‘front part of the head’, Eng. brain, OE bræġen, MLG bragen, Du. brein, Av. mərəzu- ‘cervical vertebra’; OWelsh breithell, brithell ‘meninx’ < IE *mregh-, *mregh-t-, *mrogh-, *mr̥gh-;
  • Skr. mastr̥han- ‘brain’, Av. mastərəγan-, Pers. mastarg, masturg < IE *mostr̥ghe-;
  • OE mæst ‘fruit of forest trees used to feed pigs’, Eng. mast, OHG mast, Germ. Mast ‘fattening’, OIr. mess ‘acorns’, Welsh mes, Skr. médas- ‘fat’, Av. azdiia- ‘well-fed, fat’ < IE *mozd-, *mozd-tu-, *m̥zd-;
  • Gr. myelós ‘marrow’ < IE *musel-.
mrówka
  • MIr. moirb ‘ant’, Welsh myr, Lith. mervà ‘gadfly’, Pol. mrówka ‘ant’, ORuss. morovii, Slvn. mrávlja, mrȃv < OSlav *morv- < IE *merw-, *morwi-, *morwi-jo-, *morwi-kaH;
  • Pers. mōr < *morwo-ko-;
  • Osset. mælzyg, mulzug < IE *molwi-ko-;
  • Ukr. muraxa, Bruss. mura¹ < IE *mourā-ks-;
  • Av. maorī¹, maoiri-, OSwed. mýra, myr, Eng. pis-mire < IE *mourī-, *meurion-;
  • OIc. maurr < IE *mouru-;
  • Russ. muravéj < IE *mourāwi-;
  • Gr. mýrmēks, mýrmos < IE *murmāk-, *murmo-;
  • Lat. formīca < IE *bhormīk-;
  • Gr. bórmāks < IE *bormāk-;
  • Gr. býrmāks < IE *burmāk-;
  • Gr. hórmikas < IE *wormikə-;
  • Skr. valmī́ka- ‘ant-hill’ < IE *wolm-;
  • Skr. vamrá- ‘ant’ < IE *womro-;
  • see also czerw.
mucha
  • Pol. mucha ‘fly’ < IE *mousā (*mouksā);
  • Pol. meszka ‘midge, black fly (Simulium)’, mszyca ‘aphid’, Lith. musià, mùsė, musìs < IE *musi-;
  • Lat. musca < IE *muksā (*muskā);
  • OS muggia ‘gnat’, OHG mucka, OE mycg, Eng. midge < IE *mukjā;
  • OIc. mý < IE *muHjā;
  • Gr. myĩa ‘fly’, Att. mỹa, Mod.Gr. mýga (irreg.) < IE *muHsjā;
  • Arm. mun < IE *muHson-;
  • perhaps also Lith. mã¹alas ‘gnat’, mãkatas ‘black fly’, Skr. ma¶áka- ‘stable fly (Stomoxys), gnat’ < IE *moḱo-, *moko-;
  • Skr. mákṣ-, mákṣā, makṣikā ‘fly, bee’ < IE *moḱso-.
naæ
  • Pol. naæ ‘leaves and stems of vegetables’, Pruss. noatis ‘nettle’, Lith. natrė̃, nõterė, nõtrynė ‘t.s.’, Latv. nâtre ‘t.s.’ < IE *naHt-, *nat- (*nət-);
  • OIr. nenaid < *ninati- < IE *ninat-;
  • MWelsh dynat < IE *dinat-;
  • OCorn. linhaden, MBret. lenhat, Bret. linad < IE *linat-;
  • Eng. nettle, OE netele, Germ. Nessel, OHG nazza, nezzila < PG *nati-, Gr. adíkē < IE *nəd-, *n̥d-.
nagi
  • Pol. nagi ‘naked’, Lith. núogas, Skr. nagná-, OIr. nocht, Wel. noeth, Lat. nūdus (*nogʷedos), Goth. naqaþs, naqad-, Germ. nackt, Eng. naked, Hitt. nekumant- < IE *nogʷ-, *negʷ-;
  • Av. maɣna- < IE *mogʷ-;
  • Gr. gymnós < IE *gŏgʷ-;
  • Gr. lymnós (Hesychius), OIr. lomm, lommar, Wel. llwm < IE *logʷ-.
*nāu-
  • Gr. naũs, neõs ‘ship’, Lat. nāvis, Skr. nāu- < IE *nāu-;
  • OS naco ‘boat’, OHG nacho, Germ. Nachen, dial. Ache (irreg.) < IE *nag-.
Oka
  • Lat. aqua ‘water’, Goth. aƕa ‘river’, OIc. ó̦, OE ēa, OHG aha, Germ. Ache, OHG ouwa, -awa, Germ. Aue ‘wet meadow’, Russ. Oká (a river) < IE *H2ákʷ-aH2;
  • Lat. (← NG) Scandin-avia, OE īġ ‘island’, OS īeg, OIc. ey, OFris. ei-land (PG *agwjō) < IE *H2akʷ-jáH2;
  • OIc. ǽgir (*ēkʷjós) ‘god of the sea’, OE ǣg-weard ‘guard at sea’, ēagor ‘sea, high tide’ < IE *H2ēkʷ-;
  • Skr. kām ‘water’, Dac. koadáma ‘water pepper’ (*kʷa-dhēmn̥), Pol. Kwa (a river, from Illyr.) < IE *(H2)kʷa-;
  • Hitt. ekuzi ‘he drinks’, Toch. yok-tsi ‘to drink’, Lat. ebriolus ‘tipsy’, ēbrius ‘drunken’, Gr. nḗphō ‘I am sober’ < IE *H1egʷh-, *H1eH1gʷh-;
  • Toch. āp- ‘water, river’, Skr. ap-, āp- ‘water’, apya- ‘aquatic’, dvīpá- ‘island’, Lat. Āpulī, Gr. Mess-apía ‘between rivers’, ḗpeiros ‘land’, Pruss. ape ‘stream, river’, OHG uover ‘shore’, Germ. Ufer, OE ōfer, NG haf ‘sea’, Germ. Haff ‘gulf’ < IE *H2ap-, *H2āp-;
  • Skr. vāpī- ‘oblong pond’, Ligur. Vappincum, Lith. ùpė ‘river’, Pruss. wupyan ‘cloud’, OCS vapa ‘lake’ (*wōpā); Hitt. wappu- ‘shore of a river, wadi’ < IE *wop-, *wōp-;
  • Hitt. hap-, hapa- ‘river’, Lat. amnis ‘river’ (*abnis), OIr. aub, ab (*aba), abann, Welsh afon, Gaul Abona, Latv. Abava < IE *H2abh- (*H2ap-H3-?).
oko
  • Pol. oko ‘eye’, Toch. ak, Gr. óps, gen. opós ‘eye’, Gr. optós ‘seen’ < IE *H3okʷ- (-om, -os-, -to-);
  • Gr. ṓps ‘eye’, ópōpa (perf.) ‘I have seen’ < IE *H3ōkʷ-, *H3okʷ-H3ōkʷ-;
  • Lith. akìs ‘eye’, Pol. oczy ‘eyes’, Arm. aèʰ-kʰ, Gr. ósse (< *ókje), Alb. sy < IE *H3okʷ-i-(H1);
  • Lat. oculus, ocellus ‘eye’ < IE *H3okʷ-elo-;
  • Arm. akn < IE *H3okʷ-no-;
  • Skr. akṣi, gen. akṣṇas, Av. a¹i ‘eyes’ < IE *H3okʷ-si, -sn-;
  • Gr. óphthalmos ‘eye’, óphthēn (aor.pass.) ‘I was seen’ < IE *H3okʷ-dhl̥-mo-, *H3okʷ-dheH1-;
  • Gr.Beot. óktallos ‘eye’, Gr.Dor. optílos, óptillos < IE *H3okʷ-tl̥-no-, *H3okʷ-tlo-;
  • Eng. eye, OE ēaġe, Germ. Auge < IE *H3oukʷ-ōn-.
olej
  • Lat. laetus ‘flourishing, rich, happy’, Lat. lārgus ‘generous, bountiful’, lāridum, lārdum ‘bacon’ (? ↔ Gr. lārīnós ‘fattened, fat’, lārós ‘delicious, sweet’, superl. lãrṓtatos, → Gr. lárdos ‘salted meat’) < IE *lai-, *lai-es-;
  • Eng. loam, OE lām, OS lēmo, OHG leim < *laima- < IE *lo(H)i-m-;
  • OIr. slíab ‘mountain, moor’ (< *slēbos-), Lat. salīva ‘salive, spittle’, Lith. slíekas ‘earthworm’, Pruss. slayx < IE *sleHi-, *slHiH-;
  • Hitt. salik- ‘to touch, to have contact with’, OIr. sligid, slig ‘to hew, to strike’, OE slician, Eng. slick, sleek, OHG slihhan ‘to sneak’, OCS slьzъkъ ‘slippery’, Pol. ¶liski, ¶liz ‘loach (Barbatula)’, ¶lizgaæ siê ‘to slip’ <IE *sleHi-ǵ-, *slHi-ǵ-;
  • OIr. slemon ‘polished, smooth, sleek’, Lat. līmō ‘I polish’, līmus ‘slime’, līmāx ‘snail’, Gr. leímaks ‘snail’, Eng. slime, OE, OIc., MHG slīm, OHG slīmen ‘to polish’, Pol. ¶limak ‘snail, slug’, Russ. dial. slimák ‘snail’ < IE *sleHi-m-;
  • Pol. ¶lina ‘salive’, Russ. dial. slína, S-Cr. slȉna, Latv. sliẽnas < *sleHi-n-;
  • Pol. ¶luz ‘mucus’, Russ. sljuná ‘salive’ < *sleu-, *sleu-n-;
  • Pol. lepiæ ‘to stick, to glue, to mould’, lepki ‘sticky’, OCS pri-lьpìti, pri-lьpljǫ ‘to stick’, Lith. lìpti, limpù ‘to stick, to be sticky’, Skr. limpati ‘he smears, sticks, adheres’, Goth. bileiban ‘to stay’, OHG bilīban ‘to stay, to remain, to stop’, Germ. bleiben, Goth. liban ‘to live’, Eng. live, Germ. leben, Gr. lípa ‘fat’ (adverb), lípos, gen. lípeos ‘fat’, liparós ‘fat, gleaming of oil’ (adj.), Lat. lippus ‘having watery or inflamed eyes’, Toch. lipā- ‘to be left over’ < IE *leip-, *loip-, *lip-, *lipH2-;
  • Lat. lībāre ‘to pour a libation’, dēlibūtus ‘imbued, thickly smeared’, Gr. leíbō ‘I pour’ < *leib- (related to *leH1i- ‘to pour’?);
  • Pol. olej ‘oil’ (← Lat. oleum), Eng. oil ← OFr. oile ← Lat. oleum ← Gr. élaion, élaiwon, Eng. olive, Pol. oliwa ← Lat. olīva ← Gr. elaíā, *elaíwā ‘olive tree’, Arm. ew³ ‘oil’ < IE *H1elaiw-;
  • Gr. Cypr. élphos ‘butter’ < IE *H1elbh-;
  • Gr. élpos ‘olive oil, rendered fat’, ólpē ‘leather bottle for olive oil’ < IE *H1elp-;
  • Toch.B ṣalype ‘fat, oil’, Lat. sulpur ‘sulphur’, Eng. salve, OE sealfe, OHG salba, Skr. sarpíṣ- ‘molten butter, lard’, sr̥prá- ‘greasy’, Alb. gjalpë ‘butter’ < IE *selp-;
  • Gr. áleipha, áleiphar, gen. aleíphatos ‘unguent, oil’, aloiphḗ ‘anointing, ointment, grease’, aleíphō ‘I anoint the skin with oil’ < IE *H2leibh-;
  • Lat. adeps, gen. adipis ‘fat, lard’, Umbr. aøepes, aøipes < IE *Hadep- (a borrowing from Greek?, cf. Hitt. apuzzi ‘animal fat, tallow’);
  • Lat. linō ‘I grease’, littera ‘letter’, OIr. lenaid, len ‘to stay, to glue, to follow’, Welsh llynu ‘to infect, to pollute, to corupt, to besmear’ < IE *H2li-, *H2lin-;
  • Hitt. ḫalīna ‘clay’, Gr. alī́nō ‘I anoint the skin with oil’ < IE *H2liHn-;
  • Gr. kólla ‘glue’, MDu., MLG helen ‘to stick’, Pol. klej ‘glue’, CS klìjь, *klьjь < IE *koli-, *kloi-, *kli-;
  • Pol. gliwieæ ‘to go mouldy’, glej ‘glia’, Russ. glej ‘clay, loam’, dial. glev ‘slime of fish’, S-Cr. dial. glȇj ‘type of clay’, Lith. glitùs ‘sticky’, gliẽti ‘to putty’, (dial.) glejù ‘I smear’, gléima ‘slime’, glieme¾ỹs ‘snail’, OE clæġ ‘loam, clay’, Eng. clay, glue ← Lat. glūten, *glūs, gen. *glūtis ‘glue’, glittus ‘sticky, cohesive, penurious’, Gr. glískhros ‘t.s.’, glískhrasma ‘glue’, gloiós ‘glutinous substance, glue’ (< *gloiwós), glíā ‘glue’, glíttos ‘sticky’, glítton ‘gum’, glíkhomai ‘I stick to; I long for’, Fr. glaise ‘clay’ ← Gaul. *glēssā (< *gleid-tā-), MIr. glóed ‘glue’ (< *gloido-) < IE *glei-, *gloi-, *gli- or *gleHi- etc.;
  • Pol. glina ‘clay’, Cz. hlína, Bulg. glína, Russ. glen′ ‘moisture, juice’, OCS glìnъ ‘slime’, Lith. gléinė ‘moist clay’, OHG klenan ‘to stick, to smear’, OIr. glenim ‘t.s.’, Gr. glínē ‘glue’ < IE *glein-, *gloin- *glin- or *gleHin- etc.
orzech
  • Pol. orzech ‘nut’, Alb. arrë < IE *HaroiHso-;
  • Lith. ríe¹as < IE *HroiHso-;
  • Gr. (Hes.) árya ‘nuts’ < IE *kHruH-;
  • Gr. káryon ‘walnut’ < IE *kHruH-;
  • OIr. cnú ‘nut’, Welsh cneuen, pl. cnau < IE *knuH-;
  • Lat. nux, gen. nucis < IE *knuk-;
  • Eng. nut, OE hnutu, ON hnot, Germ. Nuss, OHG nuz < IE *knud-.
osa
  • OCS, Pol. osa ‘wasp’, Russ. osá, S-Cr. òsa < IE *Hobhs-;
  • OCorn. guhi-en, OHG wafsa, OE wæfs, wæps, Av. vaβ¾aka- ‘scorpion’, Pruss. wobse, Lith. dial. vapsà ‘wasp’, Cz. vosa < IE *wobhs-;
  • Bavar. webes < IE *wobhis-;
  • Lith. vapsvà < IE *wobhsw-;
  • Dan. hveps, Norw. kvefs < IE *kwebhs-;
  • Gr. psḗn, gen. psēnós ‘gall wasp’ < IE *bhs-ēn-;
  • Lat. vespa ‘wasp’, Germ. Wespe, OE wæsp, Eng. wasp < IE *wesp-, *wosp-;
  • Span. avispa < IE *Hawesp-;
  • Gr. sphḗks, gen. sphēkós < IE *sbh-ēk-;
  • cf. also Chuv. sãpsa ‘wasp’.
paproæ
  • Pol. paproæ ‘fern’, Russ. páporot′, Bulg. páprat < IE *pōporəti-;
  • OCz. kарrаtiе, Slvk. kарrаtiе < IE *kōporəti-;
  • Slvk. рарrаdiе < IE *pōporəd(h)i-;
  • Cz kарrаd < IE *kōporəd(h)i-;
  • Lith. papártis < IE *poporəti-;
  • Lith. papar̃tis, papartỹs < IE *poporti-;
  • Latv. paparde, paparda < IE *poporəd(h)-;
  • Latv. paparske, paparkste, paparksts < IE *poport-k-;
  • Skr. párpaṭa- ‘a species of medicinal plant (Helyotis, Mollugo)’ < IE *porporto-;
  • Gr. ptéris, ptéreōs; pterís, pterídos < IE *pteri-, *pterid-;
  • Eng. fern, OE fearn, OHG farn < IE *porno-;
  • OHG farm < IE *pormo-;
  • Gaul ratis, Ir. raith, Wel. rhedyn, Bret. raden < IE *prəti-.
p±æ
  • OPol. p±æ ‘way, path’ (cf. Pol. p±tnik ‘pilgrim’), OCS pǫtь, Lat. pons, gen. pontis ‘bridge’, Gr. pátos ‘path’, póntos ‘sea’ (orig. ‘way across the sea’) < IE *pont-, *pn̥t-;
  • Eng. path, Germ. Pfad < PG *paþa- < IE *bot-;
  • perhaps further related to Eng. foot, Lat. pēs, ped-, Gr. poũs, pod- < IE *pod-, *ped-.
pch³a
  • Pol. pch³a ‘flea’ (irreg.), OPol. b³eszka, Russ. bloxá < PS *blъxa, Lith. blusà < IE *blusaH, *bhlusaH;
  • Alb. plesht, Arm. lu, Skr. plúṣi- < IE *plus-;
  • Gr. psýlla, psýllēs < IE *psul-;
  • Lat. pūlex, gen. pūlicis < IE *pusl-;
  • Eng. flea, OE fleah < PG *flaux- < IE *plouk-;
  • OE loppe, OSwed. loppa < IE *lubn-on-.
piêæ
  • Pol. piêæ ‘five’, OCS pêtь, Lith. penkì, Skr. pañca, Gr. pénte < IE *penkʷe;
  • Lat. quinque < IE *kʷenkʷe;
  • Goth. fimf < IE *pempe.
piê¶æ
  • Pol. piê¶æ, Germ. Faust, Eng. fist < PG *funxʷ-sti- < IE *pn̥kʷsti- (cf. Eng. finger < *fungʷ-r-);
  • Gr. pygmḗ < IE *pŏgʷm-;
  • Lat. pugnus ‘fist’ < IE *pŏgʷn-;
  • Lith. kùm¹tis, Pruss. kuntis ‘fist’ < *kūmpstis, Eng. hand < IE *kn̥Hp-sti-, *konp-stu-.
p³akaæ
  • Pol. p³akaæ ‘to weep’, op³akiwaæ ‘to mourn, to lament’, Lith. plàkti, plakù ‘to whip’, plõkis ‘flogging, a hit with a rod’, Gr. plḗssō < *plākjō ‘I hit’, OIc. flaga ‘sudden attack’, flögra ‘to flutter’, Eng. flaw < *plāk-;
  • Gr. plḗgnȳmi ‘I hit’, plēgē ‘a hit’, Lat. plangere ‘to hit’, Goth. flōkan ‘to mourn, to beat one’s breast’, OIc. flóki ‘felt’, flökra ‘to loaf’, Germ. Fluch ‘curse’ < *plāg-.
p³uco
  • Pol. p³uco ‘lung’, Cz. plíce (pl.), OCS plu¹ta, plju¹ta (pl.), Pruss. plauti, Lith. plaũèiai, Latv. plàu¹as, plàu¹i (and irreg. plaûk¹as, plauk¹i), Gr. pléumōn < IE *plouti-, *pleuti-, *pleumon-;
  • Gr. pnéumōn < IE *pneumon-;
  • Lat. pulmō < IE *pulmon-;
  • Skr. klóman-, kloma- ‘the right lung’ < IE *kʷleumon-, *kʷleumo-;
  • cf. ¶ledziona.
*pod-
  • Eng. fat, vat, Germ. Fass ‘barrel’, OHG faʒ, ON fat ‘pot, cover, clothes’, PG *fata- ‘pot’, Lith. púodas < IE *podos;
  • Lat. pōtus ~ pottus ‘mug, drinking utensil’ < IE *pōtos.
*pot-
  • Pol. potê¿ny ‘powerful’, Lat. potis ‘powerful’, hospes, gen. hospitis ‘friend, guest, host’, nepōs, gen. nepōtis ‘grandson’, Gr. pósis, póssis ‘spouse’, pótnia ‘mistress, woman ruler’, despótēs ‘master of the house, ruler, possessor’, Skr. pati- ‘spouse, husband’, Lith. pàts ‘spouse, -self’, viẽ¹pats ‘master’ < IE *pot-;
  • Pol. gospodarz ‘master of the house, host’, Russ. gospód′ ‘master’ < IE *podh-;
  • Gr. despózō ‘to reign, to rule’, népodes ‘progeny, descendants’ < IE *pod-;
  • perhaps Pol. pani ‘lady, mistress’ (with -a- according to Winter’s rule before *-d-; cf. Gr. pótnia, déspoina ‘mistress’) < IE *pod-niH.
pó³
  • Pol. pó³ ‘half’ < IE *polu-;
  • Lith. pùs < IE *pu-;
  • Skr. phálati ‘it splits in two’ < IE *pHol-;
  • Lat. spolium ‘prey, detached animal skin’ < IE *spol-;
  • Eng. half < IE *kolp-.
prosiê
  • Pol. prosiê ‘young pig’, Lith. par̃¹as ‘young pig, castrated boar’, Av. pərəsa- ‘young pig’, Kurd. purs, OHG farah, OE fearh, Eng. farrow, MIr. orc, Lat. porcus, maybe also Arm. ors ‘hunt, catch, hunted animal, game’, Gr. pórkos ‘kind of fishing net’ < IE *porḱ-;
  • OIr. torc ‘boar’, Welsh twrch, Av. θβərəsa- < IE *turḱ-, twr̥ḱ-;
  • Goth. bargs ‘pig’, Eng. barrow, OHG barug, barh ‘boar’, OIc. bǫrgr, Germ. Barch < IE *bhoruḱ-;
  • Russ. bórov ‘barrow, castrated boar’, OPol. browek, PS *borvъ < IE *bhorw-;
  • Eng. boar, OE bār, OS bēr, Dutch beer, OHG bēr, WG *bairaz < IE *bhoiro-;
  • OSwed. basse ‘little boar’, ON val-bassi < IE *bhorsi-;
  • see also baran.
pytaæ
  • Pol. pytaæ ‘to ask a question’ < IE *pū-t-;
  • Pol. pewny ‘sure, certain’, ufaæ (< u-pwaæ) ‘to trust’, zuchwa³y (< z-u-pwa³y) ‘audacious’ < IE *puw-;
  • Cz. ptát se ‘to ask a question’, Lat. putāre ‘to think, to believe, to wonder, to estimate’ < IE *pu-t-;
  • Eng. put (← Lat., but meaning!);
  • Toch. A putk- ‘to deem, to distinguish’ < IE *pu-t-k-;
  • perhaps Gr. peúthomai ‘I find out’, pynthánomai ‘I inquire, I ask’ < IE *peut-H-, *pu-n-t-H-, as a rule brought out of *bheudh-, *bhu-n-dh- ‘to be conscious’ (meaning!);
  • Eng. bid ‘to wish, to make sb. to do sth., to offer’, OE bēotan, Germ. bieten < IE *bheudh-;
  • Eng. bid ‘to invite’, OE biddjan, Germ. bitten ‘to ask sb. to do sth.’, Gr. pothéō ‘I miss, I long, I desire’ < IE *bhedh-j-, *bhodh-;
  • maybe OIr. guidid ‘to pray’ < IE *gʷhedh-;
  • Eng. hope, Dutch hoopen, Swed. hoppas, Germ. hoffen < IE *kup-n-;
  • maybe also Lat. opīnārī ‘to think, to believe, to suppose’ < IE *H3opei-n-.
rak
  • Gr. karkínos ‘crab’, Skr. karkata ‘astacus’, karka ‘crab’ < IE *kark-;
  • Lat. cancer ‘astacus’ < IE *kank-;
  • Pol. Russ. rak ‘astacus’, Lith. érkė, árkė ‘a species of acarines’, Latv. ẽrce ‘cattle tick; wooden horse’ < IE *HarHko- (or *raHko-);
  • Lat. ricinus ‘a species of a big tick’ < IE *HrHk-;
  • Gr. akarí ‘acarine, mite, tick’ < IE *Hkar-.
sarna
  • Pol. sarna ‘roe’, Russ. sérna ‘chamois’, ORuth. sьrna ‘roe’, Gr. kárnos ‘breeding animal, sheep’, Lith. ¹érnas ‘wild boar’ < IE *ḱrH2n-;
  • Lith. stìrna ‘roe’ < IE *strH2nā.
serce
  • Pol. serce ‘heart’, OCS srьdьce (< PS sьrdьce), Pol. osierdzie ‘pericardium’, mi³osierdzie ‘mercy, charity’, serdeczny ‘hearty, cordial’, ¶rodek ‘middle’, w¶ród ‘among’, ¶redni ‘mean, average’, ¶roda ‘Wednesday’, ¶rodowisko ‘environment’, Pruss. seyr ‘heart’, Lith. ¹irdìs ‘heart’, Latv. sir̂ds ‘heart, bravery, anger’, Goth. haírtō ‘heart’, Germ. Herz, Eng. heart, Lat. cor, gen. cordis, OIr. cride, Ir. croidhe, Welsh craidd ‘heart, middle point’, Bret. kreiz ‘centre’, Gr. kardíā, kradíā, kẽr, kéar (false archaism), kradáō ‘swing, brandish’, Arm. sirt ‘heart’, instr. srtiv, Hitt. ker, kard-, karz, kir, gen. kartija¹; MIr. cretair ‘relic’, MWelsh creir, Welsh crair; Skr. ¶raddhā- ‘confidence, devotion’, Lat. crēdō ‘I believe’ (< *krezdō- < *ḱred-dhē-), OIr. cretim ‘I believe’, Welsh credaf, Corn. cre¾y, MBret. cridiff, Mod.Bret. credi ‘believe’ < IE *ḱērd-, *ḱrd-, *ḱred-, *ḱred-rā, *ḱred-dhē-;
  • Skr. kārdi- ‘heart’ < IE *kʷrd- (borrowed?);
  • Skr. hr̥d-, Av. zərədā ‘heart’, Gr. khordḗ ‘gut, catgut, string, sausage’, Av. zrazdā- ‘believe’ < IE *ǵhord-, *ǵhrd-, *ǵhred-dhē-;
  • Lith. ¾árna, ¾arnà ‘guts, leather bag, hose’, pl. ¾árnos ‘intestines’, Alb. zorrë ‘gut’, ON gǫrn ‘t.s.’, pl. garnar, OHG garn ‘yarn made of dried gut’, Eng. yarn, Lat. hernia ‘rupture’ < IE *ǵhorH-n-;
  • Lat. haru-spex ‘diviner, soothsayer’, Skr. hira- ‘band’, hirā ‘vein’ < *ǵhrH-u-, *ǵhrH-o-;
  • Russ. grud′ ‘breast’, OPol. gr±d¼ (< PS grǫdь), Lat. grandis ‘grand, great’, Gr. brénthos ‘conceit, pride’, Arm. argand ‘whirl, vortex’ < IE *gʷrendh-;
  • Gr. phrḗn, gen. phrenós ‘midriff, diaphragm, soul, mind, heart’, phrázomai ‘think, consider’, aor. péphrade; apophrás, gen. apophrádos ‘unlucky, wicked’ < IE *gʷhren-, *gʷhrnd-;
  • further connections to hard are possible.
skrzyd³o
  • OPol. krzele ‘gill, fin’, OCS krilo ‘wing’ < IE *krei-, *kroi-;
  • Pol. skrzyd³o ‘wing’, skrzele ‘gill’, Lith. skríeti ‘rotate, circle, fly’ < IE *skrei-, *skroi-;
  • Russ. kry³ó ‘wing’ < IE *kruH-;
  • possible further connections to kr±g, krzywy.
s³oñce
  • Pol. s³oñce < PS *sъlnь-ko < IE *sl̥n-;
  • Lat. sōl < IE *swoHl-;
  • Gr. hḗlios < IE *sweHl-;
  • Gr. Hom. ēélios, Dor. āélios < IE *seHwel-;
  • Lith. sáulė, ON sowulo, Swed. sol < IE *souHl-;
  • Skr. súvar, gen. sū́ras < IE *suHel- ~ *suHl-;
  • Goth. sugil ‘the rune s’, OE syʒel ‘sun’ < IE *sukel-;
  • Eng. sun, Germ. Sonne < IE *sn̥n-.
sok
  • Lat. sūcus ‘juice’, Mbret. sunaff, Welsh sugnedydd ‘pump’, Pol. ssaæ ‘to suck’, OCS sъsati, Welsh sugno, OIc. súga, OE, OHG sūgan < IE *seuḱ-n-, *souḱ-o-, *suḱ-, *sūḱ-;
  • Latv. sùkt ‘to suck’, Pol. sutek ‘nipple’ (alone in Slavic) < IE *souk-t-, *suk-;
  • Lat. sūgere ‘to suck’, MDutch sūcen, En. suck, OE sūcan, socian ‘suck up’, Lat. sūmen ‘sow’s udder’ < IE *seuǵ-, *suǵ-, *sūǵ-;
  • Pol. sok ‘juice’, Lith. sãkas ‘tar drop’, Gr. hopós ‘tree juice’, Alb. gjak ‘blood’ < IE *sokʷ-o-;
  • Lith. svekas ‘tar’ < IE *swekʷ-o-.
swoboda
  • Pol. swoboda ‘freedom’, Russ. svobóda ‘freedom, liberty’, ORuth. svobóda ‘liberty’, OCS svobьstvo ‘person’ < PS *svob- < IE *swobh-;
  • Pol. osoba ‘person’, OCS sobьstvo ‘t.s.’ < PS *sob- < IE *sobh-;
  • OPol. ¶wieboda ‘freedom’, ¦wiebodzice = Freiburg < PS *svìboda < IE *swēbh-;
  • Russ. slobodá ‘settlement of free farmers’, ORuth. slobóda ‘personal liberty, not serfdom’ < PS *sloboda < IE *slobh-;
  • Eng. self, Goth. silba ‘alone, by oneself’ < IE *selbh-.
syty
  • Pol. syty ‘satiated, well-fed’, perh. Hitt. sunnai ‘he fills’ < IE *sūt-;
  • perh. Pol. suty ‘lavish, copious’, sowity ‘lavish, ample’ < IE *səut-, *səwīt-;
  • Lith. sotùs ‘satiated’, Latv. sãts ‘nutritive’, Goth. sōþ ‘satiation’ < IE *sāt-;
  • Lat. satis ‘enough’, satur ‘satiated, full’, Gr. áatos ‘insatiable’, Ir. sathach ‘satiated’ < IE *sət-,
  • perh. Gr. hádēn, Ion. ádēn ‘enough’ < IE *səd-.
szczur
  • Pol. szczur ‘rat’, Gr. skíouros ‘squirrel’ (→ Lat. sciūrus) < IE *skjouro-, *skiouro-;
  • Eng. squirrel, ME squirl, Fr. écureuil < Lat. *scūriolus < IE *skourjo-;
  • Lith. ¾iùrkė ‘rat’ < IE *ǵ(h)jur-.
szuja
  • Pol. szuja ‘rogue, scoundrel’, OCS ¹ujь ‘left (not right)’, Skr. savya- < IE *seujo-; also Welsh aswy, aseu < IE *adseujo-;
  • Gr. skaiós, skaiwós ‘left’, Lat. scaevus, Thrac. skaivas < IE *skaiwo-;
  • OIc. skeika ‘to make a detour’ < IE *skaigo-;
  • MHG schiec ‘slanting, contorted’ < IE *skaiko-;
  • Germ. schief ‘slanting, contorted’ < IE *skaipo-.
¶ledziona
  • Pol. ¶ledziona ‘spleen’ < *sledena < IE *seldhen-;
  • OPol. ¶leziona, OCS slìzena < †selzen-, OIr. selg < IE *selǵhen-;
  • Russ. selezënka, Ukr. selezínka < †sьlezen- < IE *sileǵhen- (†selzen- should yield **solozen-);
  • Skr. plīhán-, Av. spərəzan- < IE spl̥Hǵhen-
  • Lat. lien < IE spliǵhen-;
  • Gr. splḗn (→ Eng. spleen), gen. splēnós < IE *spleHn-;
  • Gr. splánkhna ‘intestines’ < IE *splənǵhn-;
  • Arm. phaica³n ‘spleen’ < IE *spaiǵaln-;
  • Lith. blu¾nìs, Pruss. blusne < IE *bhluǵhn-;
  • cf. p³uco.
¶winia
  • Pol. ¶winia ‘pig’, Av. hū (gen.), Alb. thi, Eng. sow, swine, Germ. Sau, Schwein, Toch. B suwo, Gaul. sutegis ‘pigsty’, Lat. sūs ‘pig’, Gr. hỹs < IE *suH-, *suHiH-;
  • Skr. sūkara ‘boar’, Pers. xūk, Lat. sūcula ‘young pig’ < IE *suHk-;
  • OE sugu ‘sow’ < IE *suk-,
  • Swed. sugga, OIr. soc, socc ‘snout’, Mid.Wel. huch, hwch ‘pig’, Bret. houc’h, PCelt. *sukko- ‘pig’ < IE *sukk-;
  • Gr. sỹs with irregular s- (? < *kj-, cf. Lith. kiaũlė ‘pig’).
targ
  • Pol. targ ‘market place’, Russ. torg ‘market, trade’, Lith. tur̃gus ‘market place’ < PBS *turgus < IE *tr̥gu-;
  • Latv. tìrgus < PBS *tirgus < IE *tr̥gu-;
  • Venet. Tergéste ‘Triest’, Opitergium, Illyr. tergitio ‘merchant’ < IE *tr̥g-;
  • Alb. tregë ‘market place’ < IE *treg-;
  • see also gród.
truteñ
  • Pol. truteñ ‘drone’, OPol. trut, trucieñ < IE *trout- (-ini-, -uni-);
  • OPol. trêteñ, trêt < IE *tront- (-uni-);
  • OPol. trudeñ < IE *troudh- (-uni-);
  • OPol. tr±d ‘drone, kind of gadfly’ < IE *trondho-;
  • Lith. trãnas ‘drone’ < IE *trono-;
  • OE dran, Eng. drone, OS dren, drāno, OHG trëno (Germ. Drohne from MLG), Gr. thrḗnē, thrēnṓdēs, thrõnaks < IE *dhrēn-, *dhron-, *dhrōn-;
  • Gr. tenthrēdṓn ‘kind of wasp’ < IE *dhendhrēd-;
  • Gr. tenthrḗnē < IE *dhendhrēn-;
  • Gr. tethrēniṓdēs < IE *dhedhrēn-;
  • Gr. athrḗnē < IE *Hdhrēn- (*Hndhrēn-);
  • Gr. anthēdṓn ‘bee’ < IE *Handhēd-;
  • Gr. anthrēdṓn ‘hornet’ < IE *Handhrēd-.
  • Gr. anthrḗnē ‘bee, wasp’ < IE *Handhrēn-;
  • Gr. pemphrēdṓn ‘wasp’ < IE *bhembhrēd-;
  • Eng. bumble < IE *bhombhl-.
twardy, tworzyæ
  • Pol. tworzyæ ‘create’, twór ‘creature’, OCS zatvorъ ‘bolt for closing the door’, Pol. twarz ‘face’, Lith. ãptvaras ‘fence’, tvérti, tveriù ‘take, catch, create, build, form (cheese), fence in, enclose’, turė́ti ‘have’, perhaps Gr. sorós ‘urn, coffin’ < IE *twer-, *twer-H-, *twor-, *twōr-i-, *tur-;
  • Pol. twardy ‘tough, hard’, twierdza ‘fortress’, twierdziæ ‘assert, affirm’, Russ. tvërdyj ‘tough, hard’, Gr. sárdion ‘sard, carnelian, carneol, a kind of precious stone’ (< Persian?), Germ. Quarz ‘quartz’, MHG quarz, PG *þwart- < IE *twr̥-d-, *twor-d-;
  • Lith. tvìrtas ‘strong, firm, healthy, hard, durable’, Latv. tvirts ‘strong, hard’ < IE *twr̥Ht-;
  • perhaps Pol. twaróg ‘cottage cheese’ < IE *twōr-ogh-;
  • perhaps Pol. trzymaæ ‘hold’, OPol. trzmieæ ‘protrude, project’ < IE *tr-m-;
  • perhaps Lat. dūrus ‘strong, hard’ < IE *duHr-;
  • perhaps Goth. hardus ‘hard’, Gr. kratýs ‘strong’ < IE *kr̥tu-;
  • Skr. dhar- ‘hold, keep, bear, support’, Lith. darýti ‘do’ < IE *dher-, *dhor-;
  • Lat. firmus ‘firm, strong’, Skr. dhárman- ‘law, fixed order’ < IE *dher-mo-;
  • Lat. formāre ‘form, create’, formāticus ‘cheese’, confirmāre ‘confirm, prove’ < IE *dh(w)or-m-;
  • Lat. fōrma ‘form, shape’ < IE dh(w)ōr-m-;
  • Gr. morphḗ ‘form’ < IE *mordhw-;
  • further connection to heart is possible.
w±¿
  • Lat. anguis ‘snake’, MIr. esc-ong ‘eel, water snake’, Welsh llys-yw-en (-yw- < *angwi-), OHG unk ‘snake’, MHG unk, unke (< *ungwō, *unkaz), Arm. awj, Lith. angìs, Latv. uòdzs ‘adder’, Pol. w±¿ ‘snake’ < IE *Hangʷhi-, *Hn̥gʷhi-;
  • Gr. ékhis, ékhidna ‘viper’, OHG egi-dehsa ‘lizard’ < IE *Heghi-;
  • Gr. óphis ‘snake’, Skr. ahi-, Av. a¾i ‘snake, dragon’ < IE *Hogʷhi-;
  • Arm. i¾ ‘snake’ < IE *Hēgʷhi-;
  • see also wêgorz.
wesz
  • Pol. wesz ‘louse’, Russ. vo¹′, S-Cr. vȃ¹ < IE *usi-;
  • Slvn. ȗ¹, S-Cr. ȗ¹ < IE *ousi-;
  • Eng. louse, Welsh llau < IE *luHs-;
  • Lith. utė̃, Latv. uts < IE *uti-;
  • Skr. yū́kā < IE *jūkā-;
  • cf. unclear Lat. pēdis (< *pesdi-?), Gr. phtheír (< *dhgʷhesir-?).
wêgorz
  • Lat. anguīlla, anguīla ‘eel’, OHG angar ‘corn weevil’, Germ. Engerling ‘cockchafer grub’, Lith. ungurỹs ‘eel’, Pol. wêgorz, Slvn. ogor ‘sea eel, conger (Conger sp.)’ < IE *Hangʷhro-, *Hangʷhor-i-, *Hn̥gʷhŏr-i-, *Hangʷhīn-l-;
  • Gr. énkhelys ‘eel’ < IE *Henghel-u-;
  • Lat. conger ‘conger’ < IE *kongʷro-;
  • Gr. góngros < IE *gongʷro-;
  • see w±¿.
wieprz
  • Pol. wieprz ‘hog’, Latv. vepris ‘castrated hog’ < IE *wepri-;
  • Germ. Eber ‘boar’, OE eofor, OIcel jǫfurr ‘prince’ (figuratively; PG *ebura- ‘knur, wieprz, dzik’), Thrac. ébros ‘he-goat’ < IE *ep[u]ro-;
  • Lat. aper ‘hog’ < IE *Hapr- (cf. Akk. appāru ‘wild boar’);
  • OIcel hafr ‘he-goat’, OE hæfer, Gr. kápros ‘hog’, Lat. caper ‘he-goat’, capra ‘goat’, Welsh caer-iwrch ‘roebuck’, OIr. caera ‘ram, sheep’ < IE *kapr-;
  • Gall. gabros ‘he-goat’, Ir. gabhar, Welsh gafr ‘goat’ < IE *ghabhr-;
  • cf. koza.
woda
  • Pol. woda ‘water’ (< -*dh-, Winter’s rule), OE wæd ‘water, lake, sea’, ġewæd ‘ford’, Lat. vadum ‘water, shallow water, ford’ < IE *wodh-;
  • Gr. hýdōr ‘water’, gen. hýdatos, Eng. water < IE *wŏdōr-, *wŏdnt-;
  • Skr. udaká-, gen. udná- < IE *udn-;
  • Lat. unda ‘wave’, Latv. ûdens ‘water’ < IE *wn̥dhā-, *wn̥dhō-;
  • ON uðr ‘wave’, pl. unnir, OE ýð ‘wave, flood’, OHG undea, PG *unþjō, *unðjō < IE *untjā-, *undhjā-;
  • Lith. vanduõ ‘water’ < IE *wondhō-.
wó³
  • Hitt. *guwau ‘head of cattle, ox, cow’, toch. A ko, pl. kowi, OIr. bó, Gr. boũs, OHG chuo, kuo, Germ. Kuh, OSwed. kō, Skr. gáuḥ, Av. gāu¹, Arm. kov, Latv. gùovs, Lith. gaujà ‘herd’, gúotas ‘t.s.’, OCS *govędo ‘head of cattle, ox, cow’, gu-mьno ‘barn’, Pol. gówno ‘shit’ (orig. ‘cow’s shit’) < IE *gʷouH-, acc. *gʷoHm (cf. Sumer. gu < gud ‘bull’);
  • OE cū, Eng. cow, OIc. kýr < IE *gʷuH-;
  • NG kvīgr ‘young bull’, Dutch kween < IE *gʷuHiH-;
  • Lat. bōs, gen. bovis < IE *bouH- (surely an Oskian loanword);
  • OWel. OCorn. buch, NWel. buwch, Bret. buc’h (< *boukkā), maybe Lat. vacca < IE *gʷoukH-;
  • Skr. va¶ā ‘cow’, maybe Lat. vacca < IE *weḱH-;
  • OCS volъ ‘ox’, gen. volu, Pol. wó³ < IE *wolu- (with alternation *gʷ : w as well as u : l like in swoboda ~ s³oboda, there exists hypotheses of Uralic or Altaic borrowing).
*wraHd-
  • Gr. rhíza ‘root’, Lesb. brísda, Myc. wriza < IE *wrid-j-;
  • ON virtr ‘wort’, OHG wirz < IE *wird-;
  • Goth. waúrts ‘root’ (< PG *wurti-), ON urt ‘herb’, OE wyrt ‘herb, plant’, ort-ġeard ‘orchard, garden’, Eng. wort, orchard, OHG wurz ‘root, herb, spice’, Gr. rhā́dīks, gen. rhā́dīkos ‘branch, twig’, rhádamnos ‘branch, twig, shoot’, Aeol. oródamnos, Gr. rhádamon ‘stalk, shoot’, rhadinós ‘taper, bendable, slender’, rhodanós ‘t.s.’, rhadalós ‘t.s.’, Lat. rādīx ‘root’, rāmus ‘branch, twig’, radius ‘rod, spoke, ray’, Welsh gwreiddyn ‘root’, gwraidd ‘roots’, gwrysg ‘branches’, Corn. gwreydh ‘root’ < IE *wraH2d-i-, *wr̥H2d-i-, *wr̥H2d-sko-;
  • Toch. B witsako ‘root’;
  • ON rót ‘root’ (→ Eng.), OSw. rót < IE *raH2d- (if it was *wraH2d-, then OSw. **vrót would be expected);
  • OE wrætte ‘madder, Rubia’, OHG rezza (< PG *wratjōn-), OIr. frén ‘root’, Ir. frém, Alb. rrëzë, rrënjë ‘root’ < IE *wrod-i-, *wr̥d-n-, *wr̥d-m-;
  • Welsh greddf ‘instinct’ (?);
  • Gr. brénthina ‘roots with which women redden their cheeks’ < IE *gʷrendH-i- (or *wr̥ndH-i-);
  • further connection to heart and hard is possible.
wrona
  • OIr., MWelsh bran ‘raven’, Gal. brano- < IE *gʷren-;
  • Lat. grāculus ‘jackdaw’, Eng. crow, OE crāwa, *crācian ‘to crow’, Germ. Krähe ‘crow’, OIc. krákr ‘raven’, kráka ‘crow’, Lith. gróti ‘to caw, to croak’, RuCS grakati, graèǫ < IE *gʷraH-;
  • Russ. ¾ávoronok ‘skylark’ < IE *gʷeHworn-;
  • Ukr. ¾ájvoronok < IE *gʷeHiworn-;
  • Pol. gawron ‘rook’, Cz. havran, S-Cr. gȁvrān < IE *gʷoHworn-;
  • Lith. ¾vìrblis ‘sparrow’, Latv. zvir̃bulis < IE *ǵwr̥Hbh-li-, *ǵwr̥Hbh-uli-;
  • LSorb. karwona ‘crow, rook’ < IE *kʷoHruwon-;
  • S-Cr. dial. kȁvran ‘raven’, Slvn. kȃvran, Lith. kóvarnis ‘rook, jackdaw’ < IE *kʷoHworn-;
  • Slvn. kavrána ‘crow, rook’ < IE *kʷoHworHn-;
  • Gr. Hesych. kóraphos (name of a bird) < IE *ḱorHbh-;
  • Gr. kóraks ‘raven’, Lith. ¹árka ‘magpie’, S-Cr. srȁka, Russ. soróka, Pol. sroka < IE *ḱorHk-;
  • Lat. cornīx ‘crow’, Gr. korṓnē < IE *ḱorHn-;
  • Lat. corvus ‘raven’ < IE *ḱorw-;
  • ON hrafn ‘raven’, OE hræfn, Eng. raven, OHG hrabo, rappo, Germ. Rabe < IE *ḱrobh-, *ḱrobh-nó-;
  • OE hrōc ‘rook, raven, jackdaw’, Eng. rook, Du. roek, OS hrōk, hrōka, OHG ruoh, ruoho ‘crow’, MHG ruoch, ruoche, ON hrókr ‘rook, crow’, Gr. krṓzō ‘I squawk’, Lith. krógti ‘to hawk’ < IE *kroHg-;
  • Gr. kraugḗ ‘cry, loud crying’, ON hraukr ‘rook, sea raven’, Goth. hruk ‘crowing’ < IE *kraug-;
  • Pol. kruk ‘raven’, OCS krukъ < IE *krouk-;
  • Skr. kró¶ati ‘he screams, he cries’, Av. kraosaiti < IE *krouḱ-;
  • S-Cr. svrȁka ‘magpie’ < IE *ḱworHk-;
  • Gr. pérgoulos ‘a kind of bird’ < IE *perg-;
  • Gr. pyrgítēs ‘sparrow’ < IE *purg-;
  • Lat. pārus ‘titmouse’ < IE *peHr-;
  • Lat. passer ‘sparrow’ < IE *pHr-s-, *pttro- ?;
  • Lat. parra ‘a bird of ill omen’, poss. ‘sea eagle’, Umbr. parfa < IE *pHrs-, *prHs-;
  • Gr. psā́r, psḗr ‘starling’ < IE *psaHr-;
  • Cz. skøivan ‘skylark’ < IE *skreiwoHn-;
  • Pol. skowronek ‘skylark’, OCS skovranьcь < IE *skoworn-;
  • Gr. spérgoulos ‘a small field bird’, spérgys ‘wren’ (?), OHG sperche ‘sparrow’, Gr. sporgílos ‘a kind of bird’, Pruss. spurglis ‘sparrow’, spergle- < IE *sperg-, *sporg-, *spr̥g-;
  • Mod.Gr. spourgítēs ‘sparrow’ (irreg. -ou-);
  • Gr. spérkhnon ‘a raptor bird smaller than eagle’, MHG sperke ‘sparrow’ < IE *spergh-;
  • Goth. sparwa, OE spearwa, Eng. sparrow, OHG sparo, MHG spare, spaze (diminut.), Germ. Sperling, Spatz (diminut.), ON spǫrr < IE *spor(H)w-;
  • MBret. frao ‘crow’, Bret. fraw, Corn. frau, Gr. sparásion (*sparwasion?) ‘bird resembling a sparrow’ < IE *spraHu-, *sprHwo-;
  • Eng. warbler, Slvk. dial. vráb ‘sparrow’, Pol. wróbel, Russ. vorobéj ‘sparrow’, S-Cr. vrábac ‘sparrow’, Ukr. vorobéc′ < IE *worHbho-, *worHbh-uli-, *worHbh-ijo-, *worHbh-iko-;
  • Gr. rhóbillos ‘regulus’ < IE *wrob-;
  • Lith. várna ‘crow’, Russ. voróna, Pol. wrona < IE *worHn-;
  • Lith. var̃nas ‘raven’, OPol. wron, Russ. vóron < IE *worn-;
  • Eng. wren, OE werna, wrenna (< *wrandjan-), Ic. rindill, OHG wrendo, wrendilo < IE *wrendh-, *wrondh-.
wydra
  • Pol. wydra ‘otter’, Lith. údra, Eng. otter, Gr. hydrā ‘water snake’ < IE *udrā (BS *ū before *d due to Winter’s rule);
  • Lat. lutra ‘otter’ < IE *lutrā.
ziemia
  • Pol. ziemia ‘earth, land’, Lat. humus < IE *dhǵhem-, *dhǵhom-;
  • Hitt. tekan, Gr. khthṓn, gen. khthonós < IE *dhǵhon-;
  • Gr. khamaí ‘on the ground’, Hitt. gimra-, gimmara ‘field, soil’, Skr. gmá-ḥ ‘of earth’ (gen. of kṣā́ḥ) < IE *ǵhĕm-.
¿ec
  • OPol. ¿ec, ¿gê ‘light a fire’ (cf. Pol. po¿oga ‘conflagration’) < PS *¾eg- < IE *gʷhegʷh-;
  • Pol. zgaga ‘heartburn’ < PS *-gag- < IE *gʷhōgʷh-;
  • Pol. dziegieæ ‘birch tar’, Old Cz. dahnìti ‘to smoulder, to glow’ < PS *deg-, *dag-, Lith. dègti ‘to burn’, degùtas ‘birch tar’, dãgas ‘heat, glowing embers’, OIr. daig ‘fire’, Eng. day, Goth. dags ‘t.s.’, Skr. dáhati ‘burn’, Lat. foveō ‘I heat, I warm up; I nurse’, febris ‘fever’, Gr. téphrā ‘ash’ < IE dhegʷh-, dhōgʷh-.
¿o³±dek
  • Gr. kholás, gen. kholádos ‘belly’, Pol. ¿o³±dek ‘stomach’ < IE *ghelondo-, *gholn̥d-;
  • Gr. kólon ‘gut’ < IE *kolo-;
  • Lith. skilándis ‘pig stomach’ < IE *skĕlond-;
  • Lith. skil̃vis ‘stomach, bird’s crop’, Latv. ¹ķilva ‘hen stomach’ < IE *skl̥w-;
  • further connections possible, see g³êboki, gʷelbh-.
¿ó³æ
  • Pol. ¿ó³æ ‘bile’, Cz. ¾luè, Russ. ¾ëlè′, OCS ¾lъèь < IE *ghlH3-ti-, *ghlH3-ki-;
  • OCS, ORuth. zlъèь, Latv. ¾ul̂ts, ¾ul̂kts, zul̂kts, Av. zāra-, En. gall, Germ. Galle, Gr. khólē ‘bile’, khólos ‘bitter hate’, Lat. helus, holus, olus n ‘vegetables’ < IE *ǵhlH3-, *ǵhlH3-ti-, *ǵhlH3-kti-;
  • Lat. fel, gen. fellis n ‘bile’ < IE *bhelH3-n-;
  • perhaps Lat. bīlis (→ En. bile), Welsh bustl, Bret. bestl < IE *bistl(H3)-;
  • Lith. tul¾ìs < IE *tlǵhH3-i-.
¿ywy
  • Pol. ¿ywy ‘alive’, Lat. vīvus, Gr. bíos ‘life’ < IE *gʷīHʷ-wo-;
  • Gr. zõion ‘animal’ < IE *gʷjoHʷ-jo-;
  • Eng. quick, Thrac. kik- ‘agile’ < IE *gʷigʷ-jo-.
The Semitic languages

The source of a part of the examples given above is B.M. Grande, Vvedenie v izuèenie semitskix jazykov, «Vostoènaja literatura», Moskva 1998.